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Lanthanum and actinium, because of their similarities to the other members of the series, are included and used to name the series, even though they are transition metals with no f electrons.
We have seen that ions are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons. A cation (positively charged ion) forms when one or more electrons are removed from a parent atom. For main group elements, the electrons that were added last are the first electrons removed. For transition metals and inner transition metals, however, electrons in the s orbital are easier to remove than the d or f electrons, and so the highest ns electrons are lost, and then the ( n – 1) d or ( n – 2) f electrons are removed. An anion (negatively charged ion) forms when one or more electrons are added to a parent atom. The added electrons fill in the order predicted by the Aufbau principle.
(a) Na +
(b) P 3–
(c) Al 2+
(d) Fe 2+
(e) Sm 3+
Next, determine whether an electron is gained or lost. Remember electrons are negatively charged, so ions with a positive charge have lost an electron. For main group elements, the last orbital gains or loses the electron. For transition metals, the last s orbital loses an electron before the d orbitals.
(a) Na: 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3 s 1 . Sodium cation loses one electron, so Na + : 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3 s 1 = Na + : 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 .
(b) P: 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3 s 2 3 p 3 . Phosphorus trianion gains three electrons, so P 3− : 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3 s 2 3 p 6 .
(c) Al: 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3 s 2 3 p 1 . Aluminum dication loses two electrons Al 2+ : 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3 s 2 3 p 1 =
Al 2+ : 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3 s 1 .
(d) Fe: 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3 s 2 3 p 6 4 s 2 3 d 6 . Iron(II) loses two electrons and, since it is a transition metal, they are removed from the 4 s orbital Fe 2+ : 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3 s 2 3 p 6 4 s 2 3 d 6 = 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3 s 2 3 p 6 3 d 6 .
(e). Sm: 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3 s 2 3 p 6 4 s 2 3 d 10 4 p 6 5 s 2 4 d 10 5 p 6 6 s 2 4 f 6 . Samarium trication loses three electrons. The first two will be lost from the 6 s orbital, and the final one is removed from the 4 f orbital. Sm 3+ : 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3 s 2 3 p 6 4 s 2 3 d 10 4 p 6 5 s 2 4 d 10 5 p 6 6 s 2 4 f 6 = 1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3 s 2 3 p 6 4 s 2 3 d 10 4 p 6 5 s 2 4 d 10 5 p 6 4 f 5 .
Tc 2+ , Ru 3+
The relative energy of the subshells determine the order in which atomic orbitals are filled (1 s , 2 s , 2 p , 3 s , 3 p , 4 s , 3 d , 4 p , and so on). Electron configurations and orbital diagrams can be determined by applying the Pauli exclusion principle (no two electrons can have the same set of four quantum numbers) and Hund’s rule (whenever possible, electrons retain unpaired spins in degenerate orbitals).
Electrons in the outermost orbitals, called valence electrons, are responsible for most of the chemical behavior of elements. In the periodic table, elements with analogous valence electron configurations usually occur within the same group. There are some exceptions to the predicted filling order, particularly when half-filled or completely filled orbitals can be formed. The periodic table can be divided into three categories based on the orbital in which the last electron to be added is placed: main group elements ( s and p orbitals), transition elements ( d orbitals), and inner transition elements ( f orbitals).
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