Localism was believed by principals to significantly correlate with promoting spirit (
p of .008, p<.01) and the ability to raise achievement (
p of .014, p<.05). Community attitude was related to the ability to motivate teachers (
p of .001, p<.01), the ability to handle paperwork (
p of .023, p<.05), and the ability to cope with stress (
p of .003, p<.01). Both community attitude and historicism correlated with the ability to promote values, but were not the primary factors. The most significant regression model in percentage of influence found teacher attitude, community attitude, and historicism to predict 60.5% of the variance in the perceived ability to promote values (
p of .024 , p<.05).
The multiple regression analyses suggest that the principals’ perceptions of localism, historicism, and familism had some influence on their sense of self-efficacy; however, the correlations were weak and offered no significant support, in the opinion of the researchers, of a substantial relationship between the principals’ perceptions of the influence of Appalachian cultural features and their sense of self-efficacy (Table 5).
No relationships were found between any of the demographic questions and responses to the
PSE or
CIS .
Conclusions and recommendations
Based on the limited nature of this study and the data derived from it, the researchers cannot provide definitive answers to the research questions posed in the study. Despite some studies that suggest the role of the educator in Appalachia is greatly different from that in urban and more populous regions of the nation and research suggesting that rural educators face a myriad of challenges that educators in urban areas do not face, this study cannot confirm or deny such findings. The study provides some weak to moderate support to the belief that families and individuals in Appalachia have a deep sense of connection to the land, to the historical context of the region, and to families. However, the same may be true for many other regions of the country outside of Appalachia.
The current study may provide a basis or foundation for some additional and more comprehensive studies. Some possible approaches could include: (a) gathering data from other stakeholders in education (including teachers, students, parents, and others), (b) measuring the principals’ perceptions of self-efficacy and the influence of cultural factors against student test data and other measures of student achievement, (c) a qualitative approach that would include visits to schools, interviews, and the gathering of narrative data, (d) using other measures of self-efficacy and of perception of cultural influences, and (e) doing comparative studies between the various regions within Appalachia or with other sections of the country.
Finally, the researchers of this study are themselves natives of West Virginia who have close and affectionate ties to the state and to the larger Appalachian region. While there were no conscious biases in the study or the conclusions drawn from the data, there is no doubt in the minds of the researchers that the cultural features of the area are largely positive and, in conjunction with qualified and motivated educational leaders and teachers, provide a solid basis for preparing the youth of Appalachia with opportunities to succeed in school and in life.
References
- Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.
Psychological Review, 84 (2), 191-215.
- Bandura, A. (1997).
Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
- Billings, D. (1974). Culture and poverty in Appalachia: A theoretical discussion and empirical analysis.
Social Forces, 53 , 315-323.
- Bizzell, B. (2009). Leading in rural Appalachia. In Makolandra, J., Bezy, K., Delp, C. Bizzell, B., Wray, C., Jones, F., Womack, J., Hutton, N., Jones, A., Wood-Setzer, G., Williams, S., Leonard, N., Nicely, K., Wright, L., Pennington, R.,&Richardson, T.
21
st
Century Theories of Educational Administration . Retrieved from Connexions Web site: http://cnx.org/content/col110727/1.1/
- Brown, R., Copeland, W. Costello, E., Erkanli, A.,&Worthman, C. (2009). Family and community
influences on educational outcomes among Appalachian youth.
Journal of Community
Psychology37 (7), 795-808.
- Budge, K. (2006). Rural leaders, rural places: Problem, privilege, and possibility.
Journal of Research in Rural Education, 21(13), 1-10.
- Chenoweth, E., and Galliher, R. (2004). Factors influencing college aspirations of rural West Virginia high school students.
Journal of Research in Rural Education, 19 (2), 1-14.
- Cline, V., Kolsun, C., Williams, L.,&Watts, L. (2011). Unpublished survey created in February, 2011, South Charleston, WV.
- Ford, T. (1962). The passing of provincialism. In T. Ford (Ed.),
The Southern Appalachian Region, A Survey (pp. 9-34). Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press.
- Johnson, J., and Strange, M. (2009).
Why rural matters 2009: State and regional challenges and opportunities. Report of the Rural School and Community Trust Policy Program. Website: www.ruraledu.org/whyruralmatters.
- Johnson, J., Shope, S.,&Roush, J. (2009).
Toward a responsive model for educational leadership in rural Appalachia: Merging theory and practice. Retrieved from:
(External Link)
- Howley, C. (2006). Remote possibilities: Rural children’s educational aspirations.
Peabody Journal of Education, 81 (2), 62-80.
- Khattri, N., Riley, K.,&Kane, M. (1997). Students at risk in poor, rural areas: A review of the research.
Journal of Research in Rural Education, 13 (2), 79-100.
- Lewis, R., and Billings, D. (1997). Appalachian culture and economic development.
Journal of Appalachian Studies, 3 (1), 1-30.
- Leithwood, K., Louis, K., Anderson, S.,&Wahlstrom, K. (2004).
How leadership influences student learning . Retrieved from The Wallace Foundation website:
(External Link)
- New Leaders for New Schools (2009).
Principal effectiveness: A new principalship to drive student achievement, teacher effectiveness, and school turnarounds. Retrieved from:
(External Link)
- Pajares, F. (2002).
Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy. Retrieved January 5, 2011, from
(External Link)
- Reck, G., Keefe, S.,&Reck, M. (1987).
Ethnicity and education in southern Appalachia: Implications for educational equity. Proceedings of the 1987 University of Kentucky
Conference on Appalachia.
- Smith, W., Guarino, A., Strom, P.,&Adams, O. (2006). Effective teaching and learning environments
and principal self-efficacy.
Journal of Research for Educational Leaders, 3 (2), 4-23.
- Tschannen-Moran, M., and McMaster, P. (2009). Sources of self-efficacy: Four professional development formats and their relationship to self-efficacy and implementation of a new teaching strategy.
The Elementary School Journal, 110 (2), 228-245.
- Tschannen-Moran, M., and Gareis, C. (2007). Cultivating principals’ self-efficacy: Supports that matter.
Journal of School Leadership, 17 , 89-114.
- Tschannen-Moran, M. and Gareis, C. (2004). Principals’ sense of efficacy.
Journal of Educational Administration, 42 (5), 573-585.
- Tschannen-Moral, M., Woolfolk-Hoy, A.,&Hoy, W. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning And measure.
Review of Educational Research, 68 , 202-248.
- Wallace, L, and Diekroger, D. (2000).
The ABCs in Appalachia: A descriptive view of perceptions of higher education in Appalachian culture. Paper presented at the Annual
Conference of the Women of Appalachia, Zanesville, Ohio.
