This graph shows the clinical progression of CD4 T cells (blue line), clinical symptoms, and viral RNA (red line) during an HIV infection. (credit: modification of work by Kogan M, and Rappaport J)
The initial diagnosis of HIV is performed using a serological test for antibody production against the pathogen. Positive test results are confirmed by Western blot or PCR tests. It can take weeks or months for the body to produce antibodies in response to an infection. There are fourth-generation tests that detect HIV antibodies and HIV antigens that are present even before the body begins producing antibodies. Nucleic acid tests (NATs) are a third type of test that is relatively expensive and uncommon; NAT can detect HIV in blood and determine the viral load.
As a consequence of provirus formation, it is currently not possible to eliminate HIV from an infected patient’s body. Elimination by specific antibodies is ineffective because the virus mutates rapidly—a result of the error-prone reverse transcriptase and the inability to correct errors. Antiviral treatments, however, can greatly extend life expectancy. To combat the problem of drug resistance, combinations of antiretroviral drugs called antiretroviral therapy (ART), sometimes called highly active ART or combined ART, are used. There are several different targets for antiviral drug action (and a growing list of drugs for each of these targets). One class of drugs inhibits HIV entry; other classes inhibit reverse transcriptase by blocking viral RNA-dependent and DNA-dependent DNA polymerase activity; and still others inhibit one of the three HIV enzymes needed to replicate inside human cells.
Why is it not yet possible to cure HIV infections?
Hiv, aids, and education
When the first outbreaks of
AIDS in the US occurred in the early 1980s, very little was known about the disease or its origins. Erroneously, the disease quickly became stigmatized as one associated with what became identified as at-risk behaviors such as sexual promiscuity, homosexuality, and IV drug use, even though mounting evidence indicated the disease was also contracted through transfusion of blood and blood products or by fetuses of infected mothers. In the mid-1980s, scientists elucidated the identity of the virus, its mode of transmission, and mechanisms of pathogenesis. Campaigns were undertaken to educate the public about how
HIV spreads to stem infection rates and encourage behavioral changes that reduced the risk for infection. Approaches to this campaign, however, emphasized very different strategies. Some groups favored educational programs that emphasized sexual abstinence, monogamy, heterosexuality, and “just say no to drugs.” Other groups placed an emphasis on “safe sex” in sex education programs and advocated social services programs that passed out free condoms to anyone, including sexually active minors, and provided needle exchange programs for IV drug users.
These are clear examples of the intersection between disease and cultural values. As a future health professional, what is your responsibility in terms of educating patients about behaviors that put them at risk for HIV or other diseases while possibly setting your own personal opinions aside? You will no doubt encounter patients whose cultural and moral values differ from your own. Is it ethical for you to promote your own moral agenda to your patients? How can you advocate for practical disease prevention while still respecting the personal views of your patients?
Viral diseases of the circulatory and lymphatic systems
Many viruses are able to cause systemic, difficult-to-treat infections because of their ability to replicate within the host. Some of the more common viruses that affect the circulatory system are summarized in
[link] .
Key concepts and summary
Human herpesviruses such
Epstein-Barr virus (HHV-4) and
cytomegalovirus (HHV-5) are widely distributed. The former is associated with infectious mononucleosis and Burkitt lymphoma, and the latter can cause serious congenital infections as well as serious disease in immunocompromised adults.
Arboviral diseases such as y
ellow fever, dengue fever, and
chikungunya fever are characterized by high fevers and vascular damage that can often be fatal.
Ebola virus disease is a highly contagious and often fatal infection spread through contact with bodily fluids.
Although there is a vaccine available for yellow fever, treatments for patients with yellow fever, dengue, chikungunya fever, and Ebola virus disease are limited to supportive therapies.
Patients infected with
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) progress through three stages of disease, culminating in
AIDS .
Antiretroviral therapy (ART) uses various combinations of drugs to suppress viral loads, extending the period of latency and reducing the likelihood of transmission.
Vector control and animal reservoir control remain the best defenses against most viruses that cause diseases of the circulatory system.
Fill in the blank
________ is a cancer that forms in patients with HHV-4 and malaria coinfections.
In economics, a perfect market refers to a theoretical construct where all participants have perfect information, goods are homogenous, there are no barriers to entry or exit, and prices are determined solely by supply and demand. It's an idealized model used for analysis,
When MP₁ becomes negative, TP start to decline.
Extuples Suppose that the short-run production function of certain cut-flower firm is given by: Q=4KL-0.6K2 - 0.112 •
Where is quantity of cut flower produced, I is labour input and K is fixed capital input (K-5). Determine the average product of lab
Kelo
Extuples Suppose that the short-run production function of certain cut-flower firm is given by: Q=4KL-0.6K2 - 0.112 •
Where is quantity of cut flower produced, I is labour input and K is fixed capital input (K-5). Determine the average product of labour (APL) and marginal product of labour (MPL)
Quantity demanded refers to the specific amount of a good or service that consumers are willing and able to purchase at a give price and within a specific time period. Demand, on the other hand, is a broader concept that encompasses the entire relationship between price and quantity demanded
Ezea
ok
Shukri
how do you save a country economic situation when it's falling apart
Economic growth as an increase in the production and consumption of goods and services within an economy.but
Economic development as a broader concept that encompasses not only economic growth but also social & human well being.
Shukri
production function means
Jabir
What do you think is more important to focus on when considering inequality ?
sir...I just want to ask one question... Define the term contract curve? if you are free please help me to find this answer 🙏
Asui
it is a curve that we get after connecting the pareto optimal combinations of two consumers after their mutually beneficial trade offs
Awais
thank you so much 👍 sir
Asui
In economics, the contract curve refers to the set of points in an Edgeworth box diagram where both parties involved in a trade cannot be made better off without making one of them worse off. It represents the Pareto efficient allocations of goods between two individuals or entities, where neither p
Cornelius
In economics, the contract curve refers to the set of points in an Edgeworth box diagram where both parties involved in a trade cannot be made better off without making one of them worse off. It represents the Pareto efficient allocations of goods between two individuals or entities,
Cornelius
Suppose a consumer consuming two commodities X and Y has
The following utility function u=X0.4 Y0.6. If the price of the X and Y are 2 and 3 respectively and income Constraint is birr 50.
A,Calculate quantities of x and y which maximize utility.
B,Calculate value of Lagrange multiplier.
C,Calculate quantities of X and Y consumed with a given price.
D,alculate optimum level of output .
the market for lemon has 10 potential consumers, each having an individual demand curve p=101-10Qi, where p is price in dollar's per cup and Qi is the number of cups demanded per week by the i th consumer.Find the market demand curve using algebra. Draw an individual demand curve and the market dema
suppose the production function is given by ( L, K)=L¼K¾.assuming capital is fixed find APL and MPL. consider the following short run production function:Q=6L²-0.4L³ a) find the value of L that maximizes output b)find the value of L that maximizes marginal product
![Table titled: Viral Diseases of the Circulatory and Lymphatic Systems. Columns: Disease, Pathogen, Signs and Symptoms, Transmission, Diagnostic Tests, Antimicrobial Drugs. AIDS/HIV infection; Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV); Flu-like symptoms during acute stage, followed by long period of clinical latency; final stage (AIDS) includes fever, weight loss, wasting syndrome, dementia, and opportunistic secondary infections leading to death; Contact with body fluids (e.g., sexual contact, use of contaminated needles); Serological tests for antibodies and/or HIV antigens; nucleic acid test (NAT) for presence of virus; Antiretroviral therapy (ART) using various combinations of drugs. Burkitt lymphoma; Epstein-Barr virus (human herpesvirus-4 [HHV-4]); Rapid formation of malignant B-cell tumors, oral hairy leukoplakia; fatal if not promptly treated; Contact with body fluids (e.g., saliva, blood, semen); primarily affects patients immunocompromised by HIV or malaria; CT scans, tumor biopsy; Intensive alternating chemotherapy regimen. Chikungunya fever; Chikungunya virus; Fever, rash, joint pain ; Transmitted between humans by Aedes aegypti and A. albopictus vectors; Viral culture, IFA, EIA, ELISA, PCR, RT-PCR; None. Cytomegalovirus infection; Cytomegalovirus (HHV-5); Usually asymptomatic but may cause non-Epstein-Barr mononucleosis in adults; may cause developmental issues in developing fetus; in transplant recipients, may cause fever, transplant rejection, death; Contact with body fluids, blood transfusions, organ transplants; infected mothers can transmit virus to fetus transplacentally or to newborn in breastmilk, saliva; Histology, culture, EIA, IFA, PCR; Ganciclovir, valganciclovir, foscarnet, cidofovir. Dengue fever (breakbone fever); Dengue fever viruses 1–4; Fever, headache, extreme bone and joint pain, abdominal pain, vomiting, hemorrhaging; can be fatal Transmitted between humans by A. aegypti and A. albopictus vectors; Serologic testing, ELISA, and RT-PCR; None. Ebola virus disease (EVD); Ebola virus; Fever, headache, joint pain, diarrhea, vomiting, hemorrhaging in gastrointestinal tract, organ failure; often fatal; Contact with body fluids (e.g., blood, saliva, sweat, urine, feces, vomit); highly contagious; ELISA, IgM ELISA, PCR, and virus isolation; None. Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS); Hantavirus; Initial flu-like symptoms followed by pulmonary edema and hypotension leading to pneumonia and shock; can be fatal; Inhalation of dried feces, urine from infected mouse or rat; ELISA, Western blot, RIBA, RT-PCR; None. Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome; Hantavirus; Fever, headache, nausea, rash, or eye inflammation, followed by hemorrhaging and kidney failure; can be fatal Inhalation of dried feces, urine from infected mouse or rat; ELISA, Western blot, RIBA, RT-PCR; None. Infectious mononucleosis; Epstein-Barr virus (HHV-4), cytomegalovirus (HHV-5); Pharyngitis, fever, extreme fatigue; swelling of lymph nodes, spleen, and liver; Contact with body fluids (e.g., saliva, blood, semen); Tests for antibodies to various EBV-associated antigens; None. Yellow fever; Yellow fever virus; Dizziness, fever, chills, headache, myalgia, nausea, vomiting, constipation, fatigue; moderate to severe cases may include jaundice, rash, mucosal, hemorrhaging, seizures, shock, and death; From monkeys to humans or between humans via Aedes or Haemagogus mosquito vectors; Culture, serology, PCR; None for treatment; preventive vaccine available.](/ocw/mirror/col12087/m58937/OSC_Microbio_25_03_Viruses.jpg)
