30.3 Europe: a.d. 1501 to 1600  (Page 14/29)

At home, the Avis Dynasty continued with Manoel I the Great ruling until 1521, then Joao III, followed by Sebastian I (1557-78). The latter undertook a new religious war against the Moors and was killed in the process, ending the dynasty. The Avis had been good rulers and their empire had had good administrators so that Lisbon had become a center of wealth, luxury and a depository for Asiatic goods. The only cloud on the horizon had resulted from Manoel's borrowing from Genoese bankers to equip his Asian-bound ships. Interest on these debts and agents' dishonesty cut heavily into the trade profits and the kings did not do as well as others around them. (Ref. 279 )

As the century progressed black slavery, imperial war, corruption at home and other features began to lay the groundwork for decline. An earthquake, which killed 30,000 people in Lisbon in 1531 did not help matters. Following the lead of Spain, Portugal expelled her Jews and soon the Inquisition entered with consequences similar to those in Spain. In the dynastic struggle which followed the end of the Avis Dynasty, the Spanish, under the Duke of Alva, invaded Portugal and defeated a Portuguese contingent in the battle of Alcantara in 1580, near Lisbon, thus allowing the Spanish king, Philip II, to also become the Portuguese monarch, at least in theory. English, Dutch and French forces then began to attack the Portuguese overseas colonies. (Ref. 119 , 229 , 222 )

France

Louis XII died in 1515 without heirs and the Valois, Francois I, became king and entered in the intrigues of a complicated Europe. Within 8 months he had invaded Italy and defeated a seasoned Swiss mercenary army of the pope near Milan. Venice, still antagonistic to Emperor Maximilian, supported Francois' armies. (Ref. 291 ) These "Italian Wars" were actually the start of nearly 60 years of warfare of France with Spain, ending in the Peace of Cateau-Cambresis, in 1559. Since Spain was ruled by Charles V, after 1540 Francois entered negotiations that were designed as a three-pronged attack against the Habsburgs, whom he felt to be his greatest antagonist. The triad attack included: (1) Subsidies to German Protestants so that they could attack Charles V from the north. (2) Alliance with the Turks to attack Austria from the east. (3) Launching a campaign with the French army from the west.

The Holy Roman Empire did decline but this was certainly not in any way the result of Francois' manipulations. Actually the French king was held as a prisoner in Madrid by Charles for about a year (1525) and his children were held as hostages much longer. (Ref. 292 ) It is also true that Francois was so busy with women that he had very little time for administration. He lived lavishly to the extent that he impoverished his people. His sister Marguerite and his mother Louise d'Angouleme of Savoy were very influential in his government and the former was very tolerant religiously, protecting many Protestants as the Reformation began to arrive in France. In 1536 Francois I did occupy the Duchy of Savoy, but by the Peace of Cateau-Cambresis Duke Emmanuel Philibert re-obtained the Duchy, excepting that portion which had been taken by the Swiss.