In summary, there are several key features that distinguish prokaryotic gene expression from that seen in eukaryotes. These are illustrated in
[link] and listed in
[link] .
(a) In prokaryotes, the processes of transcription and translation occur simultaneously in the cytoplasm, allowing for a rapid cellular response to an environmental cue. (b) In eukaryotes, transcription is localized to the nucleus and translation is localized to the cytoplasm, separating these processes and necessitating RNA processing for stability.
Protein targeting, folding, and modification
During and after translation, polypeptides may need to be modified before they are biologically active. Post-translational modifications include:
removal of translated signal sequences—short tails of amino acids that aid in directing a protein to a specific cellular compartment
proper “folding” of the polypeptide and association of multiple polypeptide subunits, often facilitated by chaperone proteins, into a distinct three-dimensional structure
proteolytic processing of an inactive polypeptide to release an active protein component, and
various chemical modifications (e.g., phosphorylation, methylation, or glycosylation) of individual amino acids.
What are the components of the initiation complex for translation in prokaryotes?
What are two differences between initiation of prokaryotic and eukaryotic translation?
What occurs at each of the three active sites of the ribosome?
What causes termination of translation?
Key concepts and summary
In
translation , polypeptides are synthesized using mRNA sequences and cellular machinery, including tRNAs that match mRNA
codons to specific amino acids and ribosomes composed of RNA and proteins that catalyze the reaction.
The
genetic code is
degenerate in that several mRNA codons code for the same amino acids. The genetic code is almost universal among living organisms.
Prokaryotic (70S) and cytoplasmic eukaryotic (80S) ribosomes are each composed of a large subunit and a small subunit of differing sizes between the two groups. Each subunit is composed of rRNA and protein. Organelle ribosomes in eukaryotic cells resemble prokaryotic ribosomes.
Some 60 to 90 species of tRNA exist in bacteria. Each tRNA has a three-nucleotide
anticodon as well as a binding site for a
cognate amino acid . All tRNAs with a specific anticodon will carry the same amino acid.
Initiation of translation occurs when the small ribosomal subunit binds with
initiation factors and an initiator tRNA at the
start codon of an mRNA, followed by the binding to the initiation complex of the large ribosomal subunit.
In prokaryotic cells, the start codon codes for N-formyl-methionine carried by a special initiator tRNA. In eukaryotic cells, the start codon codes for methionine carried by a special initiator tRNA. In addition, whereas ribosomal binding of the mRNA in prokaryotes is facilitated by the Shine-Dalgarno sequence within the mRNA, eukaryotic ribosomes bind to the 5’ cap of the mRNA.
During the
elongation stage of translation, a
charged tRNA binds to mRNA in the
A site of the ribosome; a peptide bond is catalyzed between the two adjacent amino acids, breaking the bond between the first amino acid and its tRNA; the ribosome moves one codon along the mRNA; and the first tRNA is moved from the
P site of the ribosome to the
E site and leaves the ribosomal complex.
Termination of translation occurs when the ribosome encounters a
stop codon , which does not code for a tRNA. Release factors cause the polypeptide to be released, and the ribosomal complex dissociates.
In prokaryotes, transcription and translation may be coupled, with translation of an mRNA molecule beginning as soon as transcription allows enough mRNA exposure for the binding of a ribosome, prior to transcription termination. Transcription and translation are not coupled in eukaryotes because transcription occurs in the nucleus, whereas translation occurs in the cytoplasm or in association with the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Polypeptides often require one or more
post-translational modifications to become biologically active.
Fill in the blank
The third position within a codon, in which changes often result in the incorporation of the same amino acid into the growing polypeptide, is called the ________.
Below is an antisense DNA sequence. Translate the mRNA molecule synthesized using the genetic code, recording the resulting amino acid sequence, indicating the N and C termini.
Antisense DNA strand: 3’-T A C T G A C T G A C G A T C-5’
In economics, a perfect market refers to a theoretical construct where all participants have perfect information, goods are homogenous, there are no barriers to entry or exit, and prices are determined solely by supply and demand. It's an idealized model used for analysis,
When MP₁ becomes negative, TP start to decline.
Extuples Suppose that the short-run production function of certain cut-flower firm is given by: Q=4KL-0.6K2 - 0.112 •
Where is quantity of cut flower produced, I is labour input and K is fixed capital input (K-5). Determine the average product of lab
Kelo
Extuples Suppose that the short-run production function of certain cut-flower firm is given by: Q=4KL-0.6K2 - 0.112 •
Where is quantity of cut flower produced, I is labour input and K is fixed capital input (K-5). Determine the average product of labour (APL) and marginal product of labour (MPL)
Quantity demanded refers to the specific amount of a good or service that consumers are willing and able to purchase at a give price and within a specific time period. Demand, on the other hand, is a broader concept that encompasses the entire relationship between price and quantity demanded
Ezea
ok
Shukri
how do you save a country economic situation when it's falling apart
Economic growth as an increase in the production and consumption of goods and services within an economy.but
Economic development as a broader concept that encompasses not only economic growth but also social & human well being.
Shukri
production function means
Jabir
What do you think is more important to focus on when considering inequality ?
sir...I just want to ask one question... Define the term contract curve? if you are free please help me to find this answer 🙏
Asui
it is a curve that we get after connecting the pareto optimal combinations of two consumers after their mutually beneficial trade offs
Awais
thank you so much 👍 sir
Asui
In economics, the contract curve refers to the set of points in an Edgeworth box diagram where both parties involved in a trade cannot be made better off without making one of them worse off. It represents the Pareto efficient allocations of goods between two individuals or entities, where neither p
Cornelius
In economics, the contract curve refers to the set of points in an Edgeworth box diagram where both parties involved in a trade cannot be made better off without making one of them worse off. It represents the Pareto efficient allocations of goods between two individuals or entities,
Cornelius
Suppose a consumer consuming two commodities X and Y has
The following utility function u=X0.4 Y0.6. If the price of the X and Y are 2 and 3 respectively and income Constraint is birr 50.
A,Calculate quantities of x and y which maximize utility.
B,Calculate value of Lagrange multiplier.
C,Calculate quantities of X and Y consumed with a given price.
D,alculate optimum level of output .
the market for lemon has 10 potential consumers, each having an individual demand curve p=101-10Qi, where p is price in dollar's per cup and Qi is the number of cups demanded per week by the i th consumer.Find the market demand curve using algebra. Draw an individual demand curve and the market dema
suppose the production function is given by ( L, K)=L¼K¾.assuming capital is fixed find APL and MPL. consider the following short run production function:Q=6L²-0.4L³ a) find the value of L that maximizes output b)find the value of L that maximizes marginal product
