Some Viral Adhesins and Their Host Attachment Sites
Pathogen
Disease
Adhesin
Attachment Site
Influenzavirus
Influenza
Hemagglutinin
Sialic acid of respiratory and intestinal cells
Herpes simplex virus I or II
Oral herpes, genital herpes
Glycoproteins gB, gC, gD
Heparan sulfate on mucosal surfaces of the mouth and genitals
Human immunodeficiency virus
HIV/AIDS
Glycoprotein gp120
CD4 and CCR5 or CXCR4 of immune system cells
Antigenic variation in viruses
Antigenic variation also occurs in certain types of enveloped viruses, including influenza viruses, which exhibit two forms of antigenic variation:
antigenic drift and
antigenic shift (
[link] ). Antigenic drift is the result of point mutations causing slight changes in the spike proteins
hemagglutinin (H) and
neuraminidase (N). On the other hand, antigenic shift is a major change in spike proteins due to gene reassortment. This reassortment for antigenic shift occurs typically when two different influenza viruses infect the same host.
The rate of antigenic variation in influenza viruses is very high, making it difficult for the immune system to recognize the many different strains of Influenzavirus. Although the body may develop immunity to one strain through natural exposure or vaccination, antigenic variation results in the continual emergence of new strains that the immune system will not recognize. This is the main reason that vaccines against Influenzavirus must be given annually. Each year’s
influenza vaccine provides protection against the most prevalent strains for that year, but new or different strains may be more prevalent the following year.
Explain the difference between antigenic drift and antigenic shift.
Key concepts and summary
Virulence factors contribute to a pathogen’s ability to cause disease.
Exoenzymes and
toxins allow pathogens to invade host tissue and cause tissue damage. Exoenzymes are classified according to the macromolecule they target and exotoxins are classified based on their mechanism of action.
Bacterial toxins include
endotoxin and
exotoxins . Endotoxin is the lipid A component of the LPS of the gram-negative cell envelope. Exotoxins are proteins secreted mainly by gram-positive bacteria, but also are secreted by gram-negative bacteria.
Bacterial pathogens may evade the host immune response by producing
capsules to avoid phagocytosis, surviving the intracellular environment of phagocytes, degrading antibodies, or through
antigenic variation .
Viral pathogens use adhesins for initiating infections and antigenic variation to avoid immune defenses.
Influenza viruses use both
antigenic drift and
antigenic shift to avoid being recognized by the immune system.
Fill in the blank
The glycoprotein adhesion gp120 on HIV must interact with __________ on some immune cells as the first step in the process of infecting the cell.
Antigenic __________ is the result of reassortment of genes responsible for the production of influenza virus spike proteins between different virus particles while in the same host, whereas antigenic __________ is the result of point mutations in the spike proteins.
In economics, a perfect market refers to a theoretical construct where all participants have perfect information, goods are homogenous, there are no barriers to entry or exit, and prices are determined solely by supply and demand. It's an idealized model used for analysis,
When MP₁ becomes negative, TP start to decline.
Extuples Suppose that the short-run production function of certain cut-flower firm is given by: Q=4KL-0.6K2 - 0.112 •
Where is quantity of cut flower produced, I is labour input and K is fixed capital input (K-5). Determine the average product of lab
Kelo
Extuples Suppose that the short-run production function of certain cut-flower firm is given by: Q=4KL-0.6K2 - 0.112 •
Where is quantity of cut flower produced, I is labour input and K is fixed capital input (K-5). Determine the average product of labour (APL) and marginal product of labour (MPL)
Quantity demanded refers to the specific amount of a good or service that consumers are willing and able to purchase at a give price and within a specific time period. Demand, on the other hand, is a broader concept that encompasses the entire relationship between price and quantity demanded
Ezea
ok
Shukri
how do you save a country economic situation when it's falling apart
Economic growth as an increase in the production and consumption of goods and services within an economy.but
Economic development as a broader concept that encompasses not only economic growth but also social & human well being.
Shukri
production function means
Jabir
What do you think is more important to focus on when considering inequality ?
sir...I just want to ask one question... Define the term contract curve? if you are free please help me to find this answer 🙏
Asui
it is a curve that we get after connecting the pareto optimal combinations of two consumers after their mutually beneficial trade offs
Awais
thank you so much 👍 sir
Asui
In economics, the contract curve refers to the set of points in an Edgeworth box diagram where both parties involved in a trade cannot be made better off without making one of them worse off. It represents the Pareto efficient allocations of goods between two individuals or entities, where neither p
Cornelius
In economics, the contract curve refers to the set of points in an Edgeworth box diagram where both parties involved in a trade cannot be made better off without making one of them worse off. It represents the Pareto efficient allocations of goods between two individuals or entities,
Cornelius
Suppose a consumer consuming two commodities X and Y has
The following utility function u=X0.4 Y0.6. If the price of the X and Y are 2 and 3 respectively and income Constraint is birr 50.
A,Calculate quantities of x and y which maximize utility.
B,Calculate value of Lagrange multiplier.
C,Calculate quantities of X and Y consumed with a given price.
D,alculate optimum level of output .
the market for lemon has 10 potential consumers, each having an individual demand curve p=101-10Qi, where p is price in dollar's per cup and Qi is the number of cups demanded per week by the i th consumer.Find the market demand curve using algebra. Draw an individual demand curve and the market dema
suppose the production function is given by ( L, K)=L¼K¾.assuming capital is fixed find APL and MPL. consider the following short run production function:Q=6L²-0.4L³ a) find the value of L that maximizes output b)find the value of L that maximizes marginal product