Astronomy

OpenStax

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0.1 About openstax

0.2 About openstax resources

0.3 Customization

0.6 About Astronomy

0.7 Coverage and scope

0.8 Currency and accuracy

0.9 Flexibility

0.10 Student-centered focus

0.11 Interactive online resources

0.12 Feature boxes that help students think outside the box

0.13 End-of-chapter materials to extend students’ learning

0.14 Beautiful art program

0.15 Additional resources

0.16 Student and instructor resources

0.17 Partner resources

0.18 About the authors

0.19 Senior contributing authors

0.20 Contributing authors

1 How to study for an introductory astronomy class

2 Astronomy websites, images, and apps

2.1 Websites for exploring astronomy in general

2.2 Astronomical organizations

2.3 Some astronomical publications students can read

2.4 Sites that cover astronomy news

2.5 Sites for answering astronomical questions

2.6 Miscellaneous sites of interest

2.7 Selected websites for viewing and downloading astronomical images

2.8 The top image sites

2.9 Other useful general galleries

2.10 Some galleries on specific subjects

2.11 Astronomy apps for smartphones and tablets

2.12 Listings and reviews of apps

3 Scientific notation

4 Units used in science

5 Some useful constants for astronomy

6 Physical and orbital data for the planets

7 Selected moons of the planets

8 Future total eclipses

9 The nearest stars, brown dwarfs, and white dwarfs

10 The brightest twenty stars

11 The chemical elements

12 The constellations

13 Star chart and sky event resources

Science and the universe: a brief tour

1 The nature of astronomy

2 The nature of science

3 The laws of nature

4 Numbers in astronomy

5 Consequences of light travel time

6 A tour of the universe

7 The universe on the large scale

8 The universe of the very small

9 A conclusion and a beginning

Observing the sky: the birth of astronomy

1 The sky above

2 Ancient astronomy

3 Astrology and astronomy

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 The beginnings of astrology

3.3 The horoscope

3.4 Astrology today

4 The birth of modern astronomy

4.1 Learning objectives

4.3 The heliocentric model

4.4 Galileo and the beginning of modern science

4.5 Galileo’s astronomical observations

4.6 For further exploration

4.8 Ancient Astronomy

4.9 Astronomy and Astrology

4.10 Copernicus and Galileo

4.12 Ancient Astronomy

4.13 Astronomy and Astrology

4.14 Copernicus and Galileo

4.16 Astronomy and Astrology

4.17 Copernicus and Galileo

4.18 Collaborative group activities

4.19 Thought questions

4.20 Figuring for yourself

Orbits and gravity

1 The laws of planetary motion

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Tycho brahe’s observatory

1.3 Johannes kepler

1.4 The first two laws of planetary motion

1.5 Kepler’s third law

1.6 Key concepts and summary

2 Newton’s great synthesis

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Newton’s laws of motion

2.3 Interpretation of newton’s laws

2.4 Mass, volume, and density

2.5 Angular momentum

2.6 Key concepts and summary

3 Newton’s universal law of gravitation

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Orbital motion and mass

3.3 Key concepts and summary

4 Orbits in the solar system

5 Motions of satellites and spacecraft

6 Gravity with more than two bodies

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 The interactions of many bodies

6.3 The discovery of neptune

6.4 Key concepts and summary

6.5 For further exploration

6.7 Brahe and Kepler

6.9 The Discovery of Neptune

6.11 Brahe and Kepler

6.13 The Discovery of Neptune

6.15 Brahe and Kepler

6.17 The Discovery of Neptune

6.18 Collaborative group activities

6.19 Thought questions

6.20 Figuring for yourself

Earth, moon, and sky

1 Earth and sky

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 The length of the day

3.3 Apparent solar time

3.4 Mean solar time and standard time

3.5 The international date line

3.6 Key concepts and summary

5 Phases and motions of the moon

6 Ocean tides and the moon

7 Eclipses of the sun and moon

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Eclipses of the sun

7.3 Appearance of a total eclipse

7.4 Eclipses of the moon

7.5 Key concepts and summary

7.6 For further exploration

7.10 Collaborative group activities

7.11 Thought questions

7.12 Figuring for yourself

Radiation and spectra

1 The behavior of light

2 The electromagnetic spectrum

3 Spectroscopy in astronomy

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Properties of light

3.3 The value of stellar spectra

3.4 Types of spectra

3.5 Key concepts and summary

4 The structure of the atom

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Probing the atom

4.3 The atomic nucleus

4.4 The bohr atom

4.5 Key concepts and summary

5 Formation of spectral lines

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 The hydrogen spectrum

5.3 Energy levels and excitation

5.5 Key concepts and summary

6 The doppler effect

Astronomical instruments

2 Telescopes today

3 Visible-light detectors and instruments

4 Radio telescopes

5 Observations outside earth’s atmosphere

6 The future of large telescopes

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 For further exploration

6.6 Collaborative group activities

6.7 Thought questions

6.8 Figuring for yourself

Other worlds: an introduction to the solar system

1 Overview of our planetary system

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 An inventory

1.3 Smaller members of the solar system

1.4 A scale model of the solar system

1.5 Key concepts and summary

2 Composition and structure of planets

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 The giant planets

2.3 The terrestrial planets

2.4 Moons, asteroids, and comets

2.5 Temperatures: going to extremes

2.6 Geological activity

2.7 Key concepts and summary

3 Dating planetary surfaces

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Counting the craters

3.3 Radioactive rocks

3.4 Key concepts and summary

4 Origin of the solar system

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Looking for patterns

4.3 The evidence from far away

4.4 Building planets

4.5 Key concepts and summary

4.6 For further exploration

4.10 Collaborative group activities

4.11 Thought questions

4.12 Figuring for yourself

Earth as a planet

1 The global perspective

2 Earth’s crust

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Composition of the crust

2.3 Plate tectonics

2.4 Rift and subduction zones

2.5 Fault zones and mountain building

2.7 Key concepts and summary

3 Earth’s atmosphere

4 Life, chemical evolution, and climate change

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 The origin of life

4.3 The evolution of the atmosphere

4.4 The greenhouse effect and global warming

4.5 Human impacts on our planet

4.6 Key concepts and summary

5 Cosmic influences on the evolution of earth

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Where are the craters on earth?

5.3 Recent impacts

5.4 Mass extinction

5.5 Impacts and the evolution of life

5.6 Impacts in our future?

5.7 Key concepts and summary

5.8 For further exploration

5.18 Collaborative group activities

5.19 Thought questions

5.20 Figuring for yourself

Cratered worlds

1 General properties of the moon

2 The lunar surface

3 Impact craters

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Volcanic versus impact origin of craters

3.3 The cratering process

3.4 Using crater counts

3.5 Key concepts and summary

4 The origin of the moon

Earthlike planets: venus and mars

1 The nearest planets: an overview

2 The geology of venus

3 The massive atmosphere of venus

4 The geology of mars

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Spacecraft exploration of mars

4.3 Martian samples

4.4 Global properties of mars

4.5 Volcanoes on mars

4.6 Martian cracks and canyons

4.7 The view on the martian surface

4.8 Key concepts and summary

5 Water and life on mars

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Atmosphere and clouds on mars

5.3 The polar caps

5.4 Channels and gullies on mars

5.5 Ancient lakes

5.6 Climate change on mars

5.7 The search for life on mars

5.8 Key concepts and summary

6 Divergent planetary evolution

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Key concepts and summary

6.3 For further exploration

6.9 Collaborative group activities

6.10 Thought questions

6.11 Figuring for yourself

The giant planets

1 Exploring the outer planets

2 The giant planets

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Basic characteristics

2.3 Appearance and rotation

2.4 Composition and structure

2.5 Internal heat sources

2.6 Magnetic fields

2.7 Key concepts and summary

3 Atmospheres of the giant planets

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Atmospheric composition

3.3 Clouds and atmospheric structure

3.4 Winds and weather

3.5 Giant storms on giant planets

3.6 Key concepts and summary

3.7 For further exploration

3.11 Uranus and Neptune

3.19 Collaborative group activities

3.20 Thought questions

3.21 Figuring for yourself

Rings, moons, and pluto

1 Ring and moon systems introduced

2 The galilean moons of jupiter

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Callisto: an ancient, primitive world

2.3 Ganymede, the largest moon

2.4 Europa, a moon with an ocean

2.5 Lo, a volcanic moon

2.6 Tidal heating

2.7 Key concepts and summary

3 Titan and triton

4 Pluto and charon

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Is pluto a planet?

4.3 The nature of pluto

4.4 First close-up views of pluto

4.5 A quick look at charon

4.6 Key concepts and summary

5 Planetary rings

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 What causes rings?

5.3 Rings of saturn

5.4 Rings of uranus and neptune

5.5 Interactions between rings and moons

5.6 Key concepts and summary

5.7 For further exploration

5.15 Collaborative group activities

5.16 Thought questions

5.17 Figuring for yourself

Comets and asteroids: debris of the solar system

2 Asteroids and planetary defense

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Earth-approaching asteroids

2.3 Key concepts and summary

3 The “long-haired” comets

4 The origin and fate of comets and related objects

4.1 Learning objectives

4.3 The kuiper belt and the oort cloud

4.4 Early evolution of the planetary system

4.5 The fate of comets

4.6 Key concepts and summary

4.7 For further exploration

4.17 Collaborative group activities

4.18 Thought questions

4.19 Figuring for yourself

Cosmic samples and the origin of the solar system

2 Meteorites: stones from heaven

3 Formation of the solar system

4 Comparison with other planetary systems

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Discovery of other planetary systems

4.3 Discovering exoplanets

4.4 The configurations of other planetary systems

4.5 Comparison between theory and data

4.6 Key concepts and summary

5 Planetary evolution

The sun: a garden-variety star

1 The structure and composition of the sun

2 The solar cycle

3 Solar activity above the photosphere

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Plages and prominences

3.3 Flares and coronal mass ejections

3.4 Active regions

3.5 Key concepts and summary

4 Space weather

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Some history

4.3 Sources of space weather

4.4 Solar storm damage on earth

4.5 Earth’s climate and the sunspot cycle: is there a connection?

4.6 Key concepts and summary

4.7 For further exploration

4.12 Collaborative group activities

4.13 Thought questions

4.14 Figuring for yourself

The sun: a nuclear powerhouse

1 Sources of sunshine: thermal and gravitational energy

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Conservation of energy

1.3 Gravitational contraction as a source of energy

1.4 Key concepts and summary

2 Mass, energy, and the theory of relativity

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Converting matter into energy

2.3 Elementary particles

2.4 The atomic nucleus

2.5 Nuclear attraction versus electrical repulsion

2.6 Nuclear reactions in the sun’s interior

2.7 The proton-proton chain

2.8 Key concepts and summary

3 The solar interior: theory

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 The sun is a plasma

3.3 The sun is stable

3.4 The sun is not cooling down

3.5 Heat transfer in a star

3.6 Model stars

3.7 Key concepts and summary

4 The solar interior: observations

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Solar pulsations

4.3 Solar neutrinos

4.4 Key concepts and summary

4.5 For further exploration

4.9 Collaborative group activities

4.10 Thought questions

4.11 Figuring for yourself

Analyzing starlight

1 The brightness of stars

2 Colors of stars

3 The spectra of stars (and brown dwarfs)

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Formation of stellar spectra

3.3 Classification of stellar spectra

3.4 Spectral classes l, t, and y

3.5 Low-mass brown dwarfs vs. high-mass planets

3.6 Key concepts and summary

4 Using spectra to measure stellar radius, composition, and motion

The stars: a celestial census

1 A stellar census

2 Measuring stellar masses

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Binary stars

2.3 Masses from the orbits of binary stars

2.4 The range of stellar masses

2.5 The mass-luminosity relation

2.6 Key concepts and summary

3 Diameters of stars

4 The h–r diagram

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Features of the h–r diagram

4.3 Understanding the main sequence

4.4 Extremes of stellar luminosities, diameters, and densities

4.5 The white dwarfs

4.6 Key concepts and summary

4.7 For further exploration

4.11 Collaborative group activities

4.12 Thought questions

4.13 Figuring for yourself

Celestial distances

1 Fundamental units of distance

2 Surveying the stars

3 Variable stars: one key to cosmic distances

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Variable stars

3.3 Pulsating variables

3.4 Cepheid variables

3.5 The period-luminosity relation

3.6 Rr lyrae stars

3.7 Key concepts and summary

4 The h–r diagram and cosmic distances

Between the stars: gas and dust in space

1 The interstellar medium

2 Interstellar gas

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Ionized hydrogen (h ii) regions—gas near hot stars

2.3 Neutral hydrogen clouds

2.4 Ultra-hot interstellar gas

2.5 Molecular clouds

2.6 Key concepts and summary

5 The life cycle of cosmic material

6 Interstellar matter around the sun

The birth of stars and the discovery of planets outside the solar system

1 Star formation

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Molecular clouds: stellar nurseries

1.3 The orion molecular cloud

1.4 The birth of a star

1.5 Winds and jets

1.6 Key concepts and summary

2 The h–r diagram and the study of stellar evolution

3 Evidence that planets form around other stars

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Disks around protostars: planetary systems in formation

3.3 The timing of planet formation and growth

3.4 Debris disks and shepherd planets

3.5 Key concepts and summary

4 Planets beyond the solar system: search and discovery

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Searching for orbital motion

4.3 Transiting planets

4.4 Direct detection

4.5 Key concepts and summary

5 Exoplanets everywhere: what we are learning

6 New perspectives on planet formation

Stars from adolescence to old age

1 Evolution from the main sequence to red giants

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Lifetimes on the main sequence

1.3 From main-sequence star to red giant

1.4 Models for evolution to the giant stage

1.5 Key concepts and summary

2 Star clusters

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Globular clusters

2.3 Open clusters

2.4 Stellar associations

2.5 Key concepts and summary

3 Checking out the theory

4 Further evolution of stars

5 The evolution of more massive stars

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Making new elements in massive stars

5.3 Elements in globular clusters and open clusters are not the same

5.4 Approaching death

5.5 Key concepts and summary

5.6 For further exploration

5.10 Collaborative group activities

5.11 Thought questions

5.12 Figuring for yourself

The death of stars

1 The death of low-mass stars

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 A star in crisis

1.3 Degenerate stars

1.4 White dwarfs

1.5 The ultimate fate of white dwarfs

1.6 Evidence that stars can shed a lot of mass as they evolve

1.7 Key concepts and summary

2 Evolution of massive stars: an explosive finish

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Nuclear fusion of heavy elements

2.3 Collapse into a ball of neutrons

2.4 Collapse and explosion

2.5 The supernova giveth and the supernova taketh away

2.6 Key concepts and summary

3 Supernova observations

4 Pulsars and the discovery of neutron stars

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 The discovery of neutron stars

4.3 A spinning lighthouse model

4.4 Tests of the model

4.5 The evolution of pulsars

4.6 Key concepts and summary

5 The evolution of binary star systems

6 The mystery of the gamma-ray bursts

Black holes and curved spacetime

1 Introducing general relativity

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 The principle of equivalence

1.3 Gravity or acceleration?

1.4 The paths of light and matter

1.5 Key concepts and summary

2 Spacetime and gravity

3 Tests of general relativity

4 Time in general relativity

6 Evidence for black holes

7 Gravitational wave astronomy

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Proof from a pulsar

7.3 Direct observations

7.4 Key concepts and summary

7.5 For further exploration

7.7 Black Holes

7.8 Gravitational Waves

7.10 Black Holes

7.11 Gravitational Waves

7.13 Black Holes

7.14 Gravitational Waves

7.15 Collaborative group activities

7.16 Thought questions

7.17 Figuring for yourself

The milky way galaxy

1 The architecture of the galaxy

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Herschel measures the galaxy

1.3 Disks and haloes

1.4 Key concepts and summary

2 Spiral structure

3 The mass of the galaxy

4 The center of the galaxy

5 Stellar populations in the galaxy

6 The formation of the galaxy

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 The protogalactic cloud and the monolithic collapse model

6.3 Collision victims and the multiple merger model

6.4 Key concepts and summary

6.5 For further exploration

6.9 Collaborative group activities

6.10 Thought questions

6.11 Figuring for yourself

1 The discovery of galaxies

2 Types of galaxies

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Spiral galaxies

2.3 Elliptical galaxies

2.4 Irregular galaxies

2.5 Galaxy evolution

2.6 Key concepts and summary

3 Properties of galaxies

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Masses of galaxies

3.3 Mass-to-light ratio

3.4 Key concepts and summary

4 The extragalactic distance scale

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Variable stars

4.3 Standard bulbs

4.4 Other measuring techniques

4.5 Key concepts and summary

5 The expanding universe

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Slipher’s pioneering observations

5.3 Hubble’s law

5.4 Hubble’s law and distances

5.5 Variation of hubble’s constant

5.6 Models for an expanding universe

5.7 Key concepts and summary

5.8 For further exploration

5.12 Collaborative group activities

5.13 Thought questions

5.14 Figuring for yourself

Active galaxies, quasars, and supermassive black holes

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Redshifts: the key to quasars

1.3 Quasars obey the hubble law

1.4 The size of the energy source

1.5 Earlier evidence

1.6 Key concepts and summary

2 Supermassive black holes: what quasars really are

3 Quasars as probes of evolution in the universe

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 The evolution of quasars

3.3 Codependence of black holes and galaxies

3.4 How a galaxy can influence a black hole in its center

3.5 How does the black hole influence the formation of stars in the galaxy

3.6 The birth of black holes and galaxies

3.7 Key concepts and summary

3.8 For further exploration

3.12 Collaborative group activities

3.13 Thought questions

3.14 Figuring for yourself

The evolution and distribution of galaxies

1 Observations of distant galaxies

2 Galaxy mergers and active galactic nuclei

3 The distribution of galaxies in space

4 The challenge of dark matter

5 The formation and evolution of galaxies and structure in the universe

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 How galaxies form and grow

5.3 Forming galaxy clusters, superclusters, voids, and filaments

5.4 The big picture

5.5 Key concepts and summary

5.6 For further exploration

5.10 Collaborative group activities

5.11 Thought questions

5.12 Figuring for yourself

1 The age of the universe

2 A model of the universe

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 The expanding universe

2.3 Models of the expansion

2.4 The cosmic tug of war

2.5 Ages of distant galaxies

2.6 Key concepts and summary

3 The beginning of the universe

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 The history of the idea

3.3 The first few minutes

3.4 The evolution of the early universe

3.5 Atomic nuclei form

3.6 Learning from deuterium

3.7 Key concepts and summary

4 The cosmic microwave background

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 The universe becomes transparent

4.3 Discovery of the cosmic background radiation

4.4 Properties of the cosmic microwave background

4.5 Small differences in the cmb

4.6 Key concepts and summary

5 What is the universe really made of?

6 The inflationary universe

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Problems with the standard big bang model

6.3 The inflationary hypothesis

6.4 Grand unified theories

6.5 Key concepts and summary

7 The anthropic principle

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Lucky accidents

7.3 What had to be, had to be

7.4 Key concepts and summary

7.5 For further exploration

7.9 Collaborative group activities

7.10 Thought questions

7.11 Figuring for yourself

Life in the universe

1 The cosmic context for life

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 What made earth hospitable to life?

1.3 The copernican principle

1.4 So where are they?

1.5 Key concepts and summary

3 Searching for life beyond earth

4 The search for extraterrestrial intelligence

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Interstellar travel

4.3 Messages on spacecraft

4.4 Communicating with the stars

4.5 The cosmic haystack

4.6 Radio searches

4.7 Seti outside the radio realm

4.8 Should we transmit in addition to listening?

4.10 Key concepts and summary

4.11 For further exploration

4.13 Astrobiology

4.16 Astrobiology

4.19 Astrobiology

4.21 Collaborative group activities

4.22 Thought questions

4.23 Figuring for yourself

Source: OpenStax, Astronomy. OpenStax CNX. Apr 12, 2017 Download for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11992/1.13

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