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The hope is that by the time of the next maximum, solar weather forecasting will have some of the predictive capability that meteorologists have achieved for terrestrial weather at Earth’s surface. However, the most difficult events to predict are the largest and most damaging storms—hurricanes on Earth and extreme, rare storm events on the Sun. Thus, it is inevitable that the Sun will continue to surprise us.
Dividing both sides by v , we get
Suppose you observe a major solar flare while astronauts are orbiting Earth. If the average speed of solar wind is 400 km/s and the distance to the Sun as 1.496 × 10 8 km, how long it will before the charged particles ejected from the Sun during the flare reach the space station?
While the Sun rises faithfully every day at a time that can be calculated precisely, scientists have determined that the Sun’s energy output is not truly constant but varies over the centuries by a small amount—probably less than 1%. We’ve seen that the number of sunspots varies, with the time between sunspot maxima of about 11 years, and that the number of sunspots at maximum is not always the same. Considerable evidence shows that between the years 1645 and 1715, the number of sunspots, even at sunspot maximum, was much lower than it is now. This interval of significantly low sunspot numbers was first noted by Gustav Spӧrer in 1887 and then by E. W. Maunder in 1890; it is now called the Maunder Minimum . The variation in the number of sunspots over the past three centuries is shown in [link] . Besides the Maunder Minimum in the seventeenth century, sunspot numbers were somewhat lower during the first part of the nineteenth century than they are now; this period is called the Little Maunder Minimum.
When the number of sunspots is high, the Sun is active in various other ways as well, and, as we will see in several sections below, some of this activity affects Earth directly. For example, there are more aurora l displays when the sunspot number is high. Auroras are caused when energetically charged particles from the Sun interact with Earth’s magnetosphere , and the Sun is more likely to spew out particles when it is active and the sunspot number is high. Historical accounts also indicate that auroral activity was abnormally low throughout the several decades of the Maunder Minimum.
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