# 3.2 Work, heat, and internal energy  (Page 3/6)

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${E}_{\text{int}}=\sum _{i}\left({\stackrel{\text{−}}{K}}_{i}+{\stackrel{\text{−}}{U}}_{i}\right),$

where the summation is over all the molecules of the system, and the bars over K and U indicate average values. The kinetic energy ${K}_{i}$ of an individual molecule includes contributions due to its rotation and vibration, as well as its translational energy ${m}_{i}{v}_{i}^{2}\text{/}2,$ where ${v}_{i}$ is the molecule’s speed measured relative to the center of mass of the system. The potential energy ${U}_{i}$ is associated only with the interactions between molecule i and the other molecules of the system. In fact, neither the system’s location nor its motion is of any consequence as far as the internal energy is concerned. The internal energy of the system is not affected by moving it from the basement to the roof of a 100-story building or by placing it on a moving train.

In an ideal monatomic gas, each molecule is a single atom. Consequently, there is no rotational or vibrational kinetic energy and ${K}_{i}={m}_{i}{v}_{i}^{2}\text{/}2$ . Furthermore, there are no interatomic interactions (collisions notwithstanding), so ${U}_{i}=\text{constant}$ , which we set to zero. The internal energy is therefore due to translational kinetic energy only and

${E}_{\text{int}}=\sum _{i}{\stackrel{\text{−}}{K}}_{i}=\sum _{i}\frac{1}{2}{m}_{i}\overline{{v}_{i}^{2}}.$

From the discussion in the preceding chapter, we know that the average kinetic energy of a molecule in an ideal monatomic gas is

$\frac{1}{2}{m}_{i}\stackrel{\text{−}}{{v}_{i}^{2}}=\frac{3}{2}{k}_{\text{B}}T,$

where T is the Kelvin temperature of the gas. Consequently, the average mechanical energy per molecule of an ideal monatomic gas is also $3{k}_{\text{B}}T\text{/}2,$ that is,

$\overline{{K}_{i}+{U}_{i}}=\stackrel{\text{−}}{{K}_{i}}=\frac{3}{2}{k}_{\text{B}}T.$

The internal energy is just the number of molecules multiplied by the average mechanical energy per molecule. Thus for n moles of an ideal monatomic gas,

${E}_{\text{int}}=n{N}_{\text{A}}\left(\frac{3}{2}{k}_{\text{B}}T\right)=\frac{3}{2}nRT.$

Notice that the internal energy of a given quantity of an ideal monatomic gas depends on just the temperature and is completely independent of the pressure and volume of the gas. For other systems, the internal energy cannot be expressed so simply. However, an increase in internal energy can often be associated with an increase in temperature.

We know from the zeroth law of thermodynamics that when two systems are placed in thermal contact, they eventually reach thermal equilibrium, at which point they are at the same temperature. As an example, suppose we mix two monatomic ideal gases. Now, the energy per molecule of an ideal monatomic gas is proportional to its temperature. Thus, when the two gases are mixed, the molecules of the hotter gas must lose energy and the molecules of the colder gas must gain energy. This continues until thermal equilibrium is reached, at which point, the temperature, and therefore the average translational kinetic energy per molecule, is the same for both gases. The approach to equilibrium for real systems is somewhat more complicated than for an ideal monatomic gas. Nevertheless, we can still say that energy is exchanged between the systems until their temperatures are the same.

## Summary

• Positive (negative) work is done by a thermodynamic system when it expands (contracts) under an external pressure.
• Heat is the energy transferred between two objects (or two parts of a system) because of a temperature difference.
• Internal energy of a thermodynamic system is its total mechanical energy.

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In physics, mathematics, and related fields, a wave is a propagating dynamic disturbance (change from equilibrium) of one or more quantities
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