# 16.3 Energy carried by electromagnetic waves  (Page 2/5)

 Page 2 / 5

The energy passing through area A in time $\text{Δ}t$ is

$u\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{volume}=uAc\text{Δ}t.$

The energy per unit area per unit time passing through a plane perpendicular to the wave, called the energy flux and denoted by S , can be calculated by dividing the energy by the area A and the time interval $\text{Δ}t$ .

$S=\frac{\text{Energy passing area}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}A\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{in time}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Δ}t}{A\text{Δ}t}=uc={\epsilon }_{0}c{E}^{2}=\frac{1}{{\mu }_{0}}EB.$

More generally, the flux of energy through any surface also depends on the orientation of the surface. To take the direction into account, we introduce a vector $\stackrel{\to }{S}$ , called the Poynting vector    , with the following definition:

$\stackrel{\to }{S}=\frac{1}{{\mu }_{0}}\stackrel{\to }{E}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\stackrel{\to }{B}.$

The cross-product of $\stackrel{\to }{E}$ and $\stackrel{\to }{B}$ points in the direction perpendicular to both vectors. To confirm that the direction of $\stackrel{\to }{S}$ is that of wave propagation, and not its negative, return to [link] . Note that Lenz’s and Faraday’s laws imply that when the magnetic field shown is increasing in time, the electric field is greater at x than at $x+\text{Δ}x$ . The electric field is decreasing with increasing x at the given time and location. The proportionality between electric and magnetic fields requires the electric field to increase in time along with the magnetic field. This is possible only if the wave is propagating to the right in the diagram, in which case, the relative orientations show that $\stackrel{\to }{S}=\frac{1}{{\mu }_{0}}\stackrel{\to }{E}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}×\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\stackrel{\to }{B}$ is specifically in the direction of propagation of the electromagnetic wave.

The energy flux at any place also varies in time, as can be seen by substituting u from [link] into [link] .

$S\left(x,t\right)=c{\epsilon }_{0}{E}_{0}^{2}{\text{cos}}^{2}\left(kx-\omega t\right)$

Because the frequency of visible light is very high, of the order of ${10}^{14}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Hz,}$ the energy flux for visible light through any area is an extremely rapidly varying quantity. Most measuring devices, including our eyes, detect only an average over many cycles. The time average of the energy flux is the intensity I of the electromagnetic wave and is the power per unit area. It can be expressed by averaging the cosine function in [link] over one complete cycle, which is the same as time-averaging over many cycles (here, T is one period):

$I={S}_{\text{avg}}=c{\epsilon }_{0}{E}_{0}^{2}\frac{1}{T}\underset{0}{\overset{T}{\int }}{\text{cos}}^{2}\left(2\pi \frac{t}{T}\right)dt.$

We can either evaluate the integral, or else note that because the sine and cosine differ merely in phase, the average over a complete cycle for ${\text{cos}}^{2}\left(\xi \right)$ is the same as for ${\text{sin}}^{2}\left(\xi \right)$ , to obtain

$⟨{\text{cos}}^{2}\xi ⟩=\frac{1}{2}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\left[⟨{\text{cos}}^{2}\xi ⟩+⟨{\text{sin}}^{2}\xi ⟩\right]=\frac{1}{2}⟨1⟩=\frac{1}{2}.$

where the angle brackets $⟨\text{⋯}⟩$ stand for the time-averaging operation. The intensity of light moving at speed c in vacuum is then found to be

$I={S}_{\text{avg}}=\frac{1}{2}c{\epsilon }_{0}{E}_{0}^{2}$

in terms of the maximum electric field strength ${E}_{0},$ which is also the electric field amplitude. Algebraic manipulation produces the relationship

$I=\frac{c{B}_{0}^{2}}{2{\mu }_{0}}$

where ${B}_{0}$ is the magnetic field amplitude, which is the same as the maximum magnetic field strength. One more expression for ${I}_{\text{avg}}$ in terms of both electric and magnetic field strengths is useful. Substituting the fact that $c{B}_{0}={E}_{0},$ the previous expression becomes

$I=\frac{{E}_{0}{B}_{0}}{2{\mu }_{0}}.$

We can use whichever of the three preceding equations is most convenient, because the three equations are really just different versions of the same result: The energy in a wave is related to amplitude squared. Furthermore, because these equations are based on the assumption that the electromagnetic waves are sinusoidal, the peak intensity is twice the average intensity; that is, ${I}_{0}=2I.$

a body is projected vertically upward of 30kmp/h how long will it take to reach a point 0.5km bellow e point of projection
i have to say. who cares. lol. why know that t all
Jeff
is this just a chat app about the openstax book?
kya ye b.sc ka hai agar haa to konsa part
what is charge quantization
it means that the total charge of a body will always be the integral multiples of basic unit charge ( e ) q = ne n : no of electrons or protons e : basic unit charge 1e = 1.602×10^-19
Riya
is the time quantized ? how ?
Mehmet
What do you meanby the statement,"Is the time quantized"
Mayowa
Can you give an explanation.
Mayowa
there are some comment on the time -quantized..
Mehmet
time is integer of the planck time, discrete..
Mehmet
planck time is travel in planck lenght of light..
Mehmet
it's says that charges does not occur in continuous form rather they are integral multiple of the elementary charge of an electron.
Tamoghna
it is just like bohr's theory. Which was angular momentum of electron is intral multiple of h/2π
determine absolute zero
The properties of a system during a reversible constant pressure non-flow process at P= 1.6bar, changes from constant volume of 0.3m³/kg at 20°C to a volume of 0.55m³/kg at 260°C. its constant pressure process is 3.205KJ/kg°C Determine: 1. Heat added, Work done, Change in Internal Energy and Change in Enthalpy
U can easily calculate work done by 2.303log(v2/v1)
Abhishek
Amount of heat added through q=ncv^delta t
Abhishek
Change in internal energy through q=Q-w
Abhishek
please how do dey get 5/9 in the conversion of Celsius and Fahrenheit
what is copper loss
this is the energy dissipated(usually in the form of heat energy) in conductors such as wires and coils due to the flow of current against the resistance of the material used in winding the coil.
Henry
it is the work done in moving a charge to a point from infinity against electric field
what is the weight of the earth in space
As w=mg where m is mass and g is gravitational force... Now if we consider the earth is in gravitational pull of sun we have to use the value of "g" of sun, so we can find the weight of eaeth in sun with reference to sun...
Prince
g is not gravitacional forcé, is acceleration of gravity of earth and is assumed constante. the "sun g" can not be constant and you should use Newton gravity forcé. by the way its not the "weight" the physical quantity that matters, is the mass
Jorge
Yeah got it... Earth and moon have specific value of g... But in case of sun ☀ it is just a huge sphere of gas...
Prince
Thats why it can't have a constant value of g ....
Prince
not true. you must know Newton gravity Law . even a cloud of gas it has mass thats al matters. and the distsnce from the center of mass of the cloud and the center of the mass of the earth
Jorge
please why is the first law of thermodynamics greater than the second
every law is important, but first law is conservation of energy, this state is the basic in physics, in this case first law is more important than other laws..
Mehmet
First Law describes o energy is changed from one form to another but not destroyed, but that second Law talk about entropy of a system increasing gradually
Mayowa
first law describes not destroyer energy to changed the form, but second law describes the fluid drection that is entropy. in this case first law is more basic accorging to me...
Mehmet
define electric image.obtain expression for electric intensity at any point on earthed conducting infinite plane due to a point charge Q placed at a distance D from it.
explain the lack of symmetry in the field of the parallel capacitor
pls. explain the lack of symmetry in the field of the parallel capacitor
Phoebe
does your app come with video lessons?
What is vector
Vector is a quantity having a direction as well as magnitude
Damilare