College physics for ap® courses

OpenStax

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0.1 About openstax

0.2 About openstax resources

0.3 Customization

0.6 About College Physics for AP® Courses

0.7 Coverage, scope, and alignment to the ap® curriculum

0.8 Pedagogical foundation and features

0.10 Ap physics collection

0.11 Additional resources

0.12 Student and instructor resources

0.13 Partner resources

0.14 About the authors

0.15 Senior contributing authors

0.16 Advanced placement teacher reviewers

0.17 Faculty reviewers

0.18 To the ap® physics student

0.19 To the ap® physics teacher

1 Atomic masses

2 Selected radioactive isotopes

3 Useful information

4 Glossary of key symbols and notation

Introduction: the nature of science and physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Physics: an introduction

2 Physical quantities and units

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Si units: fundamental and derived units

2.3 Units of time, length, and mass: the second, meter, and kilogram

2.6 The kilogram

2.7 Metric prefixes

2.8 Known ranges of length, mass, and time

2.9 Unit conversion and dimensional analysis

2.10 Unit conversions: a short drive home

2.12 Conceptual questions

2.13 Problems & Exercises

3 Accuracy, precision, and significant figures

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Accuracy and precision of a measurement

3.3 Accuracy, precision, and uncertainty

3.4 Percent uncertainty

3.5 Uncertainties in calculations

3.6 Precision of measuring tools and significant figures

3.8 Significant figures in calculations

3.9 Significant figures in this text

3.11 Conceptual questions

3.12 Problems & Exercises

4 Approximation

Connection for ap® courses

2 Vectors, scalars, and coordinate systems

3 Time, velocity, and speed

3.1 Learning objectives

3.5 Section summary

3.6 Conceptual questions

3.7 Problems & Exercises

3.8 Test prep for ap courses

5 Motion equations for constant acceleration in one dimension

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Notation: t , x , v , a

5.3 Putting equations together

5.4 Calculating displacement: how far does a car go when coming to a halt?

5.5 Section summary

5.6 Problems & Exercises

5.7 Test prep for ap courses

6 Problem-solving basics for one dimensional kinematics

7 Falling objects

8 Graphical analysis of one dimensional motion

8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 Slopes and general relationships

8.3 Graph of displacement vs. time ( a = 0, so v Is constant)

8.4 Graphs of motion when a Is constant but a ≠ 0

8.5 Graphs of motion where acceleration is not constant

8.6 Section summary

8.7 Conceptual questions

8.8 Problems & Exercises

Two-dimensional kinematics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Kinematics in two dimensions: an introduction

2 Vector addition and subtraction: graphical methods

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Vectors in two dimensions

2.3 Vector addition: head-to-tail method

2.4 Adding vectors graphically using the head-to-tail method: a woman takes

2.5 Vector subtraction

2.6 Multiplication of vectors and scalars

2.7 Resolving a vector into components

2.8 Test prep for ap courses

2.10 Conceptual questions

2.11 Problems & Exercises

3 Vector addition and subtraction: analytical methods

4 Projectile motion

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 A fireworks projectile explodes high and away

4.3 Calculating projectile motion: hot rock projectile

4.4 Test prep for ap courses

4.6 Conceptual questions

4.7 Problems & Exercises

5 Addition of velocities

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Relative velocity

5.3 Calculating velocity: wind velocity causes an airplane to drift

5.4 Relative velocities and classical relativity

5.5 Calculating relative velocity: an airline passenger drops a coin

5.7 Conceptual questions

5.8 Problems & Exercises

Dynamics: force and newton's laws of motion

Connection for ap® courses

1 Development of force concept

2 Newton's first law of motion: inertia

3 Newton's second law of motion: concept of a system

4 Newton's third law of motion: symmetry in forces

5 Normal, tension, and other examples of force

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Normal force

5.3 Weight on an incline, a two-dimensional problem

5.5 What is the tension in a tightrope?

5.6 Extended topic: real forces and inertial frames

5.7 Test prep for ap courses

5.8 Section summary

5.9 Conceptual questions

5.10 Problem exercises

6 Problem-solving strategies

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Problem-solving strategy for newton’s laws of motion

6.3 Test prep for ap courses

6.4 Section summary

6.5 Problem exercises

7 Further applications of newton's laws of motion

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Drag force on a barge

7.3 Different tensions at different angles

7.4 What does the bathroom scale read in an elevator?

7.5 Integrating concepts: newton’s laws of motion and kinematics

7.6 What force must a soccer player exert to reach top speed?

7.7 Test prep for ap courses

7.9 Conceptual questions

7.10 Problem exercises

8 Extended topic: the four basic forces—an introduction

Further applications of newton's laws: friction, drag, and elasticity

Connection for ap® courses

3 Elasticity: stress and strain

Gravitation and uniform circular motion

Connection for ap® courses

1 Rotation angle and angular velocity

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Rotation angle

1.3 Angular velocity

1.4 Section summary

1.5 Conceptual questions

1.6 Problem exercises

2 Centripetal acceleration

3 Centripetal force

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 What coefficient of friction do car tires need on a flat curve?

3.3 Section summary

3.4 Conceptual questions

3.5 Problems exercise

4 Fictitious forces and non-inertial frames: the coriolis force

5 Newton's universal law of gravitation

6 Satellites and kepler's laws: an argument for simplicity

Work, energy, and energy resources

Connection for ap® courses

1 Work: the scientific definition

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 What it means to do work

1.3 Calculating work

1.4 Test prep for ap courses

1.5 Section summary

1.6 Conceptual questions

1.7 Problems & Exercises

2 Kinetic energy and the work-energy theorem

3 Gravitational potential energy

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Work done against gravity

3.3 Converting between potential energy and kinetic energy

3.4 Using potential energy to simplify calculations

3.5 Finding the speed of a roller coaster from its height

3.6 Test prep for ap courses

3.7 Section summary

3.8 Conceptual questions

3.9 Problems & Exercises

4 Conservative forces and potential energy

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Potential energy and conservative forces

4.3 Potential energy of a spring

4.4 Conservation of mechanical energy

4.5 Using conservation of mechanical energy to calculate the speed of a toy

4.6 Test prep for ap courses

4.7 Section summary

4.8 Conceptual questions

4.9 Problems & Exercises

5 Nonconservative forces

6 Conservation of energy

8 Work, energy, and power in humans

8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 Energy conversion in humans

8.3 Power consumed at rest

8.4 Power of doing useful work

8.5 Section summary

8.6 Conceptual questions

8.7 Problems & Exercises

9 World energy use

Linear momentum and collisions

Connection for ap® courses

1 Linear momentum and force

3 Conservation of momentum

4 Elastic collisions in one dimension

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Calculating velocities following an elastic collision

4.3 Test prep for ap courses

4.4 Section summary

4.5 Conceptual questions

4.6 Problems & Exercises

5 Inelastic collisions in one dimension

6 Collisions of point masses in two dimensions

7 Introduction to rocket propulsion

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Section summary

7.3 Conceptual questions

7.4 Problems & Exercises

Statics and torque

Connection for ap® courses

1 The first condition for equilibrium

2 The second condition for equilibrium

4 Applications of statics, including problem-solving strategies

5 Simple machines

6 Forces and torques in muscles and joints

Rotational motion and angular momentum

Connection for ap® courses

1 Angular acceleration

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Section summary

1.3 Conceptual questions

1.4 Problems & Exercises

2 Kinematics of rotational motion

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Calculating the acceleration of a fishing reel

2.3 Section summary

2.4 Problems & Exercises

3 Dynamics of rotational motion: rotational inertia

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Rotational inertia and moment of inertia

3.3 Calculating the effect of mass distribution on a merry-go-round

3.4 Test prep for ap courses

3.5 Section summary

3.6 Conceptual questions

3.7 Problems & Exercises

4 Rotational kinetic energy: work and energy revisited

5 Angular momentum and its conservation

6 Collisions of extended bodies in two dimensions

7 Gyroscopic effects: vector aspects of angular momentum

Connection for ap® courses

1 What is a fluid?

4 Variation of pressure with depth in a fluid

5 Pascal’s principle

6 Gauge pressure, absolute pressure, and pressure measurement

7 Archimedes’ principle

8 Cohesion and adhesion in liquids: surface tension and capillary action

9 Pressures in the body

Fluid dynamics and its biological and medical applications

Connection for ap® courses

1 Flow rate and its relation to velocity

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Calculating flow speed and vessel diameter: branching in the cardiovascular

1.3 Section summary

1.4 Conceptual questions

1.5 Problems & Exercises

1.6 Test prep for ap courses

2 Bernoulli’s equation

3 The most general applications of bernoulli’s equation

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Torricelli's theorem

3.3 Power in fluid flow

3.5 Conceptual questions

3.6 Problems & Exercises

3.7 Test prep for ap courses

4 Viscosity and laminar flow; poiseuille’s law

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Laminar flow and viscosity

4.3 Laminar flow confined to tubes—poiseuille's law

4.4 Flow and resistance as causes of pressure drops

4.5 Section summary

4.6 Conceptual questions

4.7 Problems & Exercises

5 The onset of turbulence

6 Motion of an object in a viscous fluid

7 Molecular transport phenomena: diffusion, osmosis, and related processes

7.1 Learning objectives

7.3 The rate and direction of diffusion

7.4 Osmosis and dialysis—diffusion across membranes

7.5 Section summary

7.6 Conceptual questions

7.7 Problem exercises

Temperature, kinetic theory, and the gas laws

Connection for ap® courses

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Temperature scales

1.3 Temperature ranges in the universe

1.4 Thermal equilibrium and the zeroth law of thermodynamics

1.5 Section summary

1.6 Conceptual questions

1.7 Problems & Exercises

2 Thermal expansion of solids and liquids

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Thermal expansion in two and three dimensions

2.3 Thermal stress

2.4 Section summary

2.5 Conceptual questions

2.6 Problems & Exercises

3 The ideal gas law

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Moles and avogadro’s number

3.3 The ideal gas law restated using moles

3.4 The ideal gas law and energy

3.5 Test prep for ap courses

3.6 Section summary

3.7 Conceptual questions

3.8 Problems & Exercises

4 Kinetic theory: atomic and molecular explanation of pressure and

5 Phase changes

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 PV Diagrams

5.3 Phase diagrams

5.4 Equilibrium

5.5 Vapor pressure, partial pressure, and dalton’s law

5.6 Section summary

5.7 Conceptual questions

6 Humidity, evaporation, and boiling

Heat and heat transfer methods

Connection for ap® courses

2 Temperature change and heat capacity

3 Phase change and latent heat

4 Heat transfer methods

4.1 Learning objectives

4.3 Conceptual questions

Connection for ap® courses

1 The first law of thermodynamics

2 The first law of thermodynamics and some simple processes

3 Introduction to the second law of thermodynamics: heat engines and their

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Heat engines

3.3 Daily work done by a coal-fired power station, its efficiency and carbon

3.4 Section summary

3.5 Conceptual questions

3.6 Problem exercises

4 Carnot’s perfect heat engine: the second law of thermodynamics restated

5 Applications of thermodynamics: heat pumps and refrigerators

6 Entropy and the second law of thermodynamics: disorder and the unavailability

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Entropy increases in an irreversible (real) process

6.3 Entropy and the unavailability of energy to do work

6.4 Heat death of the universe: an overdose of entropy

6.5 Order to disorder

6.6 Life, evolution, and the second law of thermodynamics

6.7 Test prep for ap courses

6.8 Section summary

6.9 Conceptual questions

6.10 Problem exercises

7 Statistical interpretation of entropy and the second law of thermodynamics

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Coin tosses

7.3 Disorder in a gas

7.4 Test prep for ap courses

7.5 Section summary

7.6 Conceptual questions

7.7 Problem exercises

Oscillatory motion and waves

Connection for ap® courses

1 Hooke’s law: stress and strain revisited

2 Period and frequency in oscillations

3 Simple harmonic motion: a special periodic motion

4 The simple pendulum

5 Energy and the simple harmonic oscillator

6 Uniform circular motion and simple harmonic motion

7 Damped harmonic motion

8 Forced oscillations and resonance

8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 Test prep for ap courses

8.3 Section summary

8.4 Conceptual questions

8.5 Problems & Exercises

10 Superposition and interference

11 Energy in waves: intensity

Physics of hearing

Connection for ap® courses

2 Speed of sound, frequency, and wavelength

3 Sound intensity and sound level

4 Doppler effect and sonic booms

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Calculate doppler shift: a train horn

4.3 Sonic booms to bow wakes

4.4 Test prep for ap courses

4.5 Section summary

4.6 Conceptual questions

4.7 Problems & Exercises

5 Sound interference and resonance: standing waves in air columns

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Test prep for ap courses

5.3 Section summary

5.4 Conceptual questions

5.5 Problems & Exercises

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Section summary

6.3 Conceptual questions

6.4 Problems & Exercises

Electric charge and electric field

Connection for ap® courses

1 Static electricity and charge: conservation of charge

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Charge carried by electrons and protons

1.3 Separation of charge in atoms

1.4 Test prep for ap courses

1.5 Section summary

1.6 Conceptual questions

1.7 Problems & Exercises

2 Conductors and insulators

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Charging by contact

2.3 Charging by induction

2.4 Test prep for ap courses

2.5 Section summary

2.6 Conceptual questions

2.7 Problems & Exercises

3 Conductors and electric fields in static equilibrium

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Earth's electric field

3.3 Electric fields on uneven surfaces

3.4 Applications of conductors

3.5 Test prep for ap courses

3.6 Section summary

3.7 Conceptual questions

3.8 Problems & Exercises

4 Coulomb’s law

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Test prep for ap courses

4.3 Section summary

4.4 Conceptual questions

4.5 Problems & Exercises

5 Electric field: concept of a field revisited

6 Electric field lines: multiple charges

7 Electric forces in biology

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Polarity of water molecules

7.3 Section summary

7.4 Conceptual question

8 Applications of electrostatics

8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 The van de graaff generator

8.4 Laser printers

8.5 Ink jet printers and electrostatic painting

8.6 Smoke precipitators and electrostatic air cleaning

8.7 Integrated concepts

8.8 Acceleration of a charged drop of gasoline

8.9 Section summary

8.10 Problems & Exercises

Electric potential and electric field

Connection for ap® courses

1 Electric potential energy: potential difference

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 The electron volt

1.3 Conservation of energy

1.4 Test prep for ap courses

1.5 Section summary

1.6 Conceptual questions

1.7 Problems & Exercises

2 Electric potential in a uniform electric field

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Test prep for ap courses

2.3 Section summary

2.4 Conceptual questions

2.5 Problems & Exercises

3 Electrical potential due to a point charge

4 Equipotential lines

5 Capacitors and dielectrics

6 Capacitors in series and parallel

7 Energy stored in capacitors

Electric current, resistance, and ohm's law

Connection for ap® courses

2 Ohm’s law: resistance and simple circuits

2.1 Learning objectives

2.3 Resistance and simple circuits

2.4 Test prep for ap courses

2.5 Section summary

2.6 Conceptual questions

2.7 Problems & Exercises

3 Resistance and resistivity

4 Electric power and energy

5 Alternating current versus direct current

6 Electric hazards and the human body

7 Nerve conduction–electrocardiograms

Circuits, bioelectricity, and dc instruments

Connection for ap® courses

1 Resistors in series and parallel

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Resistors in series

1.3 Calculating resistance, current, voltage drop, and power dissipation:

1.4 Resistors in parallel

1.5 Calculating resistance, current, power dissipation, and power output:

1.6 Combinations of series and parallel

1.7 Calculating resistance, IR Drop, current, and power dissipation: combining

1.8 Practical implications

1.9 Test prep for ap courses

1.10 Section summary

1.11 Conceptual questions

1.12 Problem exercises

2 Electromotive force: terminal voltage

3 Kirchhoff’s rules

4 Dc voltmeters and ammeters

5 Null measurements

6 Dc circuits containing resistors and capacitors

Connection for ap® courses

2 Ferromagnets and electromagnets

3 Magnetic fields and magnetic field lines

4 Magnetic field strength: force on a moving charge in a magnetic field

5 Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field: examples and applications

6 The hall effect

7 Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor

8 Torque on a current loop: motors and meters

9 Magnetic fields produced by currents: ampere’s law

10 Magnetic force between two parallel conductors

11 More applications of magnetism

Electromagnetic induction, ac circuits, and electrical technologies

Connection for ap® courses

1 Induced emf and magnetic flux

2 Faraday’s law of induction: lenz’s law

4 Eddy currents and magnetic damping

5 Electric generators

8 Electrical safety: systems and devices

8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 Test prep for ap courses

8.3 Section summary

8.4 Conceptual questions

8.5 Problems & Exercises

9.1 Learning objectives

9.3 Energy stored in an inductor

9.4 Section summary

9.5 Conceptual questions

9.6 Problems & Exercises

10.1 Learning objectives

10.2 Section summary

10.3 Problem exercises

11 Reactance, inductive and capacitive

11.1 Learning objectives

11.2 Inductors and inductive reactance

11.3 Capacitors and capacitive reactance

11.4 Resistors in an ac circuit

11.5 Section summary

11.6 Conceptual questions

11.7 Problems & Exercises

12 Rlc series ac circuits

12.1 Learning objectives

12.3 Resonance in RLC Series ac circuits

12.4 Power in RLC Series ac circuits

12.5 Section summary

12.6 Conceptual questions

12.7 Problems & Exercises

Electromagnetic waves

Connection for ap® courses

1 Maxwell’s equations: electromagnetic waves predicted and observed

2 Production of electromagnetic waves

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Electric and magnetic waves: moving together

2.3 Receiving electromagnetic waves

2.4 Relating E -field and B -field strengths

2.5 Test prep for ap courses

2.6 Section summary

2.7 Conceptual questions

2.8 Problems & Exercises

3 The electromagnetic spectrum

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Transmission, reflection, and absorption

3.3 Radio and tv waves

3.4 Fm radio waves

3.5 Radio wave interference

3.7 Heating with microwaves

3.8 Infrared radiation

3.9 Visible light

3.10 Integrated concept problem: correcting vision with lasers

3.11 Ultraviolet radiation

3.12 Human exposure to uv radiation

3.13 Uv light and the ozone layer

3.14 Benefits of uv light

3.16 Gamma rays

3.17 Detecting electromagnetic waves from space

3.18 Test prep for ap courses

3.19 Section summary

3.20 Conceptual questions

3.21 Problems & Exercises

4 Energy in electromagnetic waves

Geometric optics

Connection for ap® courses

1 The ray aspect of light

2 The law of reflection

3 The law of refraction

4 Total internal reflection

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Fiber optics: endoscopes to telephones

4.3 Corner reflectors and diamonds

4.4 The sparkle of diamonds

4.5 Test prep for ap courses

4.6 Section summary

4.7 Conceptual questions

4.8 Problems & Exercises

5 Dispersion: the rainbow and prisms

6 Image formation by lenses

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Ray tracing and thin lenses

6.3 Image formation by thin lenses

6.4 Finding the image of a light bulb filament by ray tracing and by the

6.5 Image produced by a magnifying glass

6.6 Problem-solving strategies for lenses

6.7 Test prep for ap courses

6.8 Section summary

6.9 Conceptual questions

6.10 Problems & Exercises

7 Image formation by mirrors

Vision and optical instruments

Connection for ap® courses

1 Physics of the eye

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Test prep for ap courses

1.3 Section summary

1.4 Conceptual questions

1.5 Problem exercises

2 Vision correction

3 Color and color vision

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Section summary

6.3 Conceptual questions

6.4 Problem exercises

Connection for ap® courses

1 The wave aspect of light: interference

2 Huygens's principle: diffraction

3 Young’s double slit experiment

4 Multiple slit diffraction

5 Single slit diffraction

6 Limits of resolution: the rayleigh criterion

7 Thin film interference

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Soap bubbles: more than one thickness can be constructive

7.3 Problem-solving strategies for wave optics

7.4 Test prep for ap courses

7.5 Section summary

7.6 Conceptual questions

7.7 Problems & Exercises

9 *extended topic* microscopy enhanced by the wave characteristics of

Special relativity

Connection for ap® courses

1 Einstein’s postulates

2 Simultaneity and time dilation

3 Length contraction

4 Relativistic addition of velocities

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Classical velocity addition

4.3 Relativistic velocity addition

4.4 Doppler shift

4.5 Test prep for ap courses

4.6 Section summary

4.7 Conceptual questions

4.8 Problems & Exercises

5 Relativistic momentum

6 Relativistic energy

Introduction to quantum physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Quantization of energy

2 The photoelectric effect

3 Photon energies and the electromagnetic spectrum

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Ionizing radiation

3.3 Visible light

3.4 Lower-energy photons

3.5 Test prep for ap courses

3.6 Section summary

3.7 Conceptual questions

3.8 Problems & Exercises

4 Photon momentum

5 The particle-wave duality

6 The wave nature of matter

7 Probability: the heisenberg uncertainty principle

8 The particle-wave duality reviewed

Connection for ap® courses

1 Discovery of the atom

2 Discovery of the parts of the atom: electrons and nuclei

3 Bohr’s theory of the hydrogen atom

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Mysteries of atomic spectra

3.3 Bohr’s solution for hydrogen

3.4 Triumphs and limits of the bohr theory

3.5 Test prep for ap courses

3.6 Section summary

3.7 Conceptual questions

3.8 Problems & Exercises

4 X rays: atomic origins and applications

5 Applications of atomic excitations and de-excitations

6 The wave nature of matter causes quantization

7 Patterns in spectra reveal more quantization

8 Quantum numbers and rules

9 The pauli exclusion principle

9.1 Learning objectives

9.2 Multiple-electron atoms

9.3 Shells and subshells

9.4 Shell filling and the periodic table

9.5 Section summary

9.6 Conceptual questions

9.7 Problem exercises

Radioactivity and nuclear physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Nuclear radioactivity

2 Radiation detection and detectors

3 Substructure of the nucleus

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Nuclear forces and stability

3.3 Test prep for ap courses

3.4 Section summary

3.5 Conceptual questions

3.6 Problems & Exercises

4 Nuclear decay and conservation laws

5 Half-life and activity

5.1 Learning objectives

5.3 Activity, the rate of decay

5.4 How great is the 14 C Activity in living tissue?

5.5 Human and medical applications

5.6 Test prep for ap courses

5.7 Section summary

5.8 Conceptual questions

5.9 Problems & Exercises

6 Binding energy

Medical applications of nuclear physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Medical imaging and diagnostics

2 Biological effects of ionizing radiation

3 Therapeutic uses of ionizing radiation

4 Food irradiation

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Calculating energy and power from fusion

5.3 Test prep for ap courses

5.4 Section summary

5.5 Conceptual questions

5.6 Problems & Exercises

7 Nuclear weapons

Particle physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 The yukawa particle and the heisenberg uncertainty principle revisited

2 The four basic forces

3 Accelerators create matter from energy

4 Particles, patterns, and conservation laws

5 Quarks: is that all there is?

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Conception of quarks

5.3 How does it work?

5.4 All combinations are possible

5.5 Now, let us talk about direct evidence

5.6 Quarks have their ups and downs

5.7 What's color got to do with it?—a whiter shade of pale

5.8 The three families

5.9 Test prep for ap courses

5.11 Conceptual questions

5.12 Problems & Exercises

6 Guts: the unification of forces

Frontiers of physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Cosmology and particle physics

2 General relativity and quantum gravity

4 Dark matter and closure

5 Complexity and chaos

6 High-temperature superconductors

7 Some questions we know to ask

Source: OpenStax, College physics for ap® courses. OpenStax CNX. Nov 04, 2016 Download for free at https://legacy.cnx.org/content/col11844/1.14

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