College physics for ap® courses

OpenStax

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0.1 About openstax

0.2 About openstax resources

0.3 Customization

0.6 About College Physics for AP® Courses

0.7 Coverage, scope, and alignment to the ap® curriculum

0.8 Pedagogical foundation and features

0.10 Ap physics collection

0.11 Additional resources

0.12 Student and instructor resources

0.13 Partner resources

0.14 About the authors

0.15 Senior contributing authors

0.16 Advanced placement teacher reviewers

0.17 Faculty reviewers

0.18 To the ap® physics student

0.19 To the ap® physics teacher

1 Atomic masses

2 Selected radioactive isotopes

3 Useful information

4 Glossary of key symbols and notation

Introduction: the nature of science and physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Physics: an introduction

2 Physical quantities and units

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Si units: fundamental and derived units

2.3 Units of time, length, and mass: the second, meter, and kilogram

2.6 The kilogram

2.7 Metric prefixes

2.8 Known ranges of length, mass, and time

2.9 Unit conversion and dimensional analysis

2.10 Unit conversions: a short drive home

2.12 Conceptual questions

2.13 Problems & Exercises

3 Accuracy, precision, and significant figures

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Accuracy and precision of a measurement

3.3 Accuracy, precision, and uncertainty

3.4 Percent uncertainty

3.5 Uncertainties in calculations

3.6 Precision of measuring tools and significant figures

3.8 Significant figures in calculations

3.9 Significant figures in this text

3.11 Conceptual questions

3.12 Problems & Exercises

4 Approximation

Connection for ap® courses

1.1 Learning objectives

1.3 Displacement

1.5 Section summary

1.6 Conceptual questions

1.7 Problems & Exercises

1.8 Test prep for ap courses

2 Vectors, scalars, and coordinate systems

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Coordinate systems for one-dimensional motion

2.3 Section summary

2.4 Conceptual questions

2.5 Test prep for ap courses

3 Time, velocity, and speed

3.1 Learning objectives

3.5 Section summary

3.6 Conceptual questions

3.7 Problems & Exercises

3.8 Test prep for ap courses

5 Motion equations for constant acceleration in one dimension

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Notation: t , x , v , a

5.3 Putting equations together

5.4 Calculating displacement: how far does a car go when coming to a halt?

5.5 Section summary

5.6 Problems & Exercises

5.7 Test prep for ap courses

6 Problem-solving basics for one dimensional kinematics

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Problem-solving steps

6.9 Unreasonable results

6.13 Section summary

6.14 Conceptual questions

7 Falling objects

8 Graphical analysis of one dimensional motion

8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 Slopes and general relationships

8.3 Graph of displacement vs. time ( a = 0, so v Is constant)

8.4 Graphs of motion when a Is constant but a ≠ 0

8.5 Graphs of motion where acceleration is not constant

8.6 Section summary

8.7 Conceptual questions

8.8 Problems & Exercises

Two-dimensional kinematics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Kinematics in two dimensions: an introduction

2 Vector addition and subtraction: graphical methods

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Vectors in two dimensions

2.3 Vector addition: head-to-tail method

2.4 Adding vectors graphically using the head-to-tail method: a woman takes

2.5 Vector subtraction

2.6 Multiplication of vectors and scalars

2.7 Resolving a vector into components

2.8 Test prep for ap courses

2.10 Conceptual questions

2.11 Problems & Exercises

3 Vector addition and subtraction: analytical methods

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Resolving a vector into perpendicular components

3.3 Calculating a resultant vector

3.4 Adding vectors using analytical methods

3.5 Adding vectors using analytical methods

3.7 Conceptual questions

3.8 Problems & Exercises

4 Projectile motion

5 Addition of velocities

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Relative velocity

5.3 Calculating velocity: wind velocity causes an airplane to drift

5.4 Relative velocities and classical relativity

5.5 Calculating relative velocity: an airline passenger drops a coin

5.7 Conceptual questions

5.8 Problems & Exercises

Dynamics: force and newton's laws of motion

Connection for ap® courses

1 Development of force concept

2 Newton's first law of motion: inertia

3 Newton's second law of motion: concept of a system

4 Newton's third law of motion: symmetry in forces

5 Normal, tension, and other examples of force

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Normal force

5.3 Weight on an incline, a two-dimensional problem

5.5 What is the tension in a tightrope?

5.6 Extended topic: real forces and inertial frames

5.7 Test prep for ap courses

5.8 Section summary

5.9 Conceptual questions

5.10 Problem exercises

6 Problem-solving strategies

7 Further applications of newton's laws of motion

8 Extended topic: the four basic forces—an introduction

Further applications of newton's laws: friction, drag, and elasticity

Connection for ap® courses

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Skiing exercise

1.3 Test prep for ap courses

1.4 Section summary

1.5 Conceptual questions

1.6 Problems & Exercises

3 Elasticity: stress and strain

Gravitation and uniform circular motion

Connection for ap® courses

1 Rotation angle and angular velocity

2 Centripetal acceleration

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Section summary

2.3 Conceptual questions

2.4 Problem exercises

3 Centripetal force

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 What coefficient of friction do car tires need on a flat curve?

3.3 Section summary

3.4 Conceptual questions

3.5 Problems exercise

4 Fictitious forces and non-inertial frames: the coriolis force

5 Newton's universal law of gravitation

5.1 Learning objectives

5.3 ”weightlessness” and microgravity

5.4 The cavendish experiment: then and now

5.5 Test prep for ap courses

5.6 Section summary

5.7 Conceptual questions

5.8 Problem exercises

6 Satellites and kepler's laws: an argument for simplicity

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Kepler's laws of planetary motion

6.3 Derivation of kepler's third law for circular orbits

6.4 The case for simplicity

6.5 Section summary

6.6 Conceptual questions

6.7 Problem exercises

Work, energy, and energy resources

Connection for ap® courses

1 Work: the scientific definition

2 Kinetic energy and the work-energy theorem

3 Gravitational potential energy

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Work done against gravity

3.3 Converting between potential energy and kinetic energy

3.4 Using potential energy to simplify calculations

3.5 Finding the speed of a roller coaster from its height

3.6 Test prep for ap courses

3.7 Section summary

3.8 Conceptual questions

3.9 Problems & Exercises

4 Conservative forces and potential energy

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Potential energy and conservative forces

4.3 Potential energy of a spring

4.4 Conservation of mechanical energy

4.5 Using conservation of mechanical energy to calculate the speed of a toy

4.6 Test prep for ap courses

4.7 Section summary

4.8 Conceptual questions

4.9 Problems & Exercises

5 Nonconservative forces

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Nonconservative forces and friction

5.3 How nonconservative forces affect mechanical energy

5.4 How the work-energy theorem applies

5.5 Applying energy conservation with nonconservative forces

5.6 Test prep for ap courses

5.7 Section summary

5.8 Problems & Exercises

6 Conservation of energy

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Law of conservation of energy

6.3 Other forms of energy than mechanical energy

6.4 Some of the many forms of energy

6.5 Transformation of energy

6.7 Test prep for ap courses

6.8 Section summary

6.9 Conceptual questions

6.10 Problems & Exercises

8 Work, energy, and power in humans

8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 Energy conversion in humans

8.3 Power consumed at rest

8.4 Power of doing useful work

8.5 Section summary

8.6 Conceptual questions

8.7 Problems & Exercises

9 World energy use

9.1 Learning objectives

9.2 Renewable and nonrenewable energy sources

9.3 The world’s growing energy needs

9.4 Energy and economic well-being

9.5 Conserving energy

9.6 Section summary

9.7 Conceptual questions

9.8 Problems & Exercises

Linear momentum and collisions

Connection for ap® courses

1 Linear momentum and force

3 Conservation of momentum

4 Elastic collisions in one dimension

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Calculating velocities following an elastic collision

4.3 Test prep for ap courses

4.4 Section summary

4.5 Conceptual questions

4.6 Problems & Exercises

5 Inelastic collisions in one dimension

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Calculating velocity and change in kinetic energy: inelastic collision

5.3 Test prep for ap courses

5.4 Section summary

5.5 Conceptual questions

5.6 Problems & Exercises

6 Collisions of point masses in two dimensions

7 Introduction to rocket propulsion

Statics and torque

Connection for ap® courses

1 The first condition for equilibrium

2 The second condition for equilibrium

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Section summary

3.3 Conceptual questions

3.4 Problems & Exercises

3.5 Test prep for ap courses

4 Applications of statics, including problem-solving strategies

5 Simple machines

6 Forces and torques in muscles and joints

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Do not lift with your back

6.3 Section summary

6.4 Conceptual questions

6.5 Problems & Exercises

6.6 Test prep for ap courses

Rotational motion and angular momentum

Connection for ap® courses

1 Angular acceleration

2 Kinematics of rotational motion

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Calculating the acceleration of a fishing reel

2.3 Section summary

2.4 Problems & Exercises

3 Dynamics of rotational motion: rotational inertia

4 Rotational kinetic energy: work and energy revisited

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Calculating the work and energy for spinning a grindstone

4.3 Calculating helicopter energies

4.4 How thick is the soup? or why don't all objects roll downhill at the

4.5 Test prep for ap courses

4.6 Section summary

4.7 Conceptual questions

4.8 Problems & Exercises

5 Angular momentum and its conservation

6 Collisions of extended bodies in two dimensions

7 Gyroscopic effects: vector aspects of angular momentum

Connection for ap® courses

1 What is a fluid?

4 Variation of pressure with depth in a fluid

5 Pascal’s principle

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Application of pascal's principle

5.3 Relationship between forces in a hydraulic system

5.4 Section summary

5.5 Conceptual questions

5.6 Problems & Exercises

6 Gauge pressure, absolute pressure, and pressure measurement

7 Archimedes’ principle

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Floating and sinking

7.3 Calculating buoyant force: dependency on shape

7.4 Density and archimedes' principle

7.5 More density measurements

7.6 Section summary

7.7 Conceptual questions

7.8 Problem exercises

8 Cohesion and adhesion in liquids: surface tension and capillary action

8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 Cohesion and adhesion in liquids

8.3 Surface tension

8.4 Adhesion and capillary action

8.5 Section summary

8.6 Conceptual questions

8.7 Problems & Exercises

9 Pressures in the body

9.1 Learning objectives

9.2 Pressure in the body

9.3 Blood pressure

9.4 Pressure in the eye

9.5 Pressure associated with the lungs

9.6 Other pressures in the body

9.7 Spinal column and skull

9.8 Bladder pressure

9.9 Pressures in the skeletal system

9.10 Section summary

9.11 Problems & Exercises

Fluid dynamics and its biological and medical applications

Connection for ap® courses

1 Flow rate and its relation to velocity

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Calculating flow speed and vessel diameter: branching in the cardiovascular

1.3 Section summary

1.4 Conceptual questions

1.5 Problems & Exercises

1.6 Test prep for ap courses

2 Bernoulli’s equation

3 The most general applications of bernoulli’s equation

4 Viscosity and laminar flow; poiseuille’s law

5 The onset of turbulence

6 Motion of an object in a viscous fluid

7 Molecular transport phenomena: diffusion, osmosis, and related processes

7.1 Learning objectives

7.3 The rate and direction of diffusion

7.4 Osmosis and dialysis—diffusion across membranes

7.5 Section summary

7.6 Conceptual questions

7.7 Problem exercises

Temperature, kinetic theory, and the gas laws

Connection for ap® courses

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Temperature scales

1.3 Temperature ranges in the universe

1.4 Thermal equilibrium and the zeroth law of thermodynamics

1.5 Section summary

1.6 Conceptual questions

1.7 Problems & Exercises

2 Thermal expansion of solids and liquids

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Thermal expansion in two and three dimensions

2.3 Thermal stress

2.4 Section summary

2.5 Conceptual questions

2.6 Problems & Exercises

3 The ideal gas law

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Moles and avogadro’s number

3.3 The ideal gas law restated using moles

3.4 The ideal gas law and energy

3.5 Test prep for ap courses

3.6 Section summary

3.7 Conceptual questions

3.8 Problems & Exercises

4 Kinetic theory: atomic and molecular explanation of pressure and

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Calculating kinetic energy and speed of a gas molecule

4.3 Distribution of molecular speeds

4.4 Calculating temperature: escape velocity of helium atoms

4.5 Test prep for ap courses

4.6 Section summary

4.7 Conceptual questions

4.8 Problems & Exercises

5 Phase changes

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 PV Diagrams

5.3 Phase diagrams

5.4 Equilibrium

5.5 Vapor pressure, partial pressure, and dalton’s law

5.6 Section summary

5.7 Conceptual questions

6 Humidity, evaporation, and boiling

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Calculating density using vapor pressure

6.3 Calculating humidity and dew point

6.4 Section summary

6.5 Conceptual questions

6.6 Problems & Exercises

Heat and heat transfer methods

Connection for ap® courses

2 Temperature change and heat capacity

3 Phase change and latent heat

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Calculate final temperature from phase change: cooling soda with ice

3.3 Problem-solving strategies for the effects of heat transfer

3.5 Conceptual questions

3.6 Problems & Exercises

4 Heat transfer methods

Connection for ap® courses

1 The first law of thermodynamics

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Heat Q And work W

1.3 Internal energy U

1.4 Calculating change in internal energy: the same change in U Is produced

1.5 Human metabolism and the first law of thermodynamics

1.6 Test prep for ap courses

1.7 Section summary

1.8 Conceptual questions

1.9 Problems & Exercises

2 The first law of thermodynamics and some simple processes

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 PV Diagrams and their relationship to work done on or by a gas

2.3 Total work done in a cyclical process equals the area inside the closed

2.4 Reversible processes

2.5 Test prep for ap courses

2.6 Section summary

2.7 Conceptual questions

2.8 Problem exercises

3 Introduction to the second law of thermodynamics: heat engines and their

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Heat engines

3.3 Daily work done by a coal-fired power station, its efficiency and carbon

3.4 Section summary

3.5 Conceptual questions

3.6 Problem exercises

4 Carnot’s perfect heat engine: the second law of thermodynamics restated

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Maximum theoretical efficiency for a nuclear reactor

4.3 Section summary

4.4 Conceptual questions

4.5 Problem exercises

5 Applications of thermodynamics: heat pumps and refrigerators

6 Entropy and the second law of thermodynamics: disorder and the unavailability

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Entropy increases in an irreversible (real) process

6.3 Entropy and the unavailability of energy to do work

6.4 Heat death of the universe: an overdose of entropy

6.5 Order to disorder

6.6 Life, evolution, and the second law of thermodynamics

6.7 Test prep for ap courses

6.8 Section summary

6.9 Conceptual questions

6.10 Problem exercises

7 Statistical interpretation of entropy and the second law of thermodynamics

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Coin tosses

7.3 Disorder in a gas

7.4 Test prep for ap courses

7.5 Section summary

7.6 Conceptual questions

7.7 Problem exercises

Oscillatory motion and waves

Connection for ap® courses

1 Hooke’s law: stress and strain revisited

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Energy in hooke’s law of deformation

1.3 Test prep for ap courses

1.4 Section summary

1.5 Conceptual questions

1.6 Problems & Exercises

2 Period and frequency in oscillations

3 Simple harmonic motion: a special periodic motion

4 The simple pendulum

5 Energy and the simple harmonic oscillator

6 Uniform circular motion and simple harmonic motion

7 Damped harmonic motion

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Damping an oscillatory motion: friction on an object connected to a

7.3 Test prep for ap courses

7.4 Section summary

7.5 Conceptual questions

7.6 Problems & Exercises

8 Forced oscillations and resonance

8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 Test prep for ap courses

8.3 Section summary

8.4 Conceptual questions

8.5 Problems & Exercises

10 Superposition and interference

11 Energy in waves: intensity

Physics of hearing

Connection for ap® courses

2 Speed of sound, frequency, and wavelength

3 Sound intensity and sound level

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Test prep for ap courses

3.3 Section summary

3.4 Conceptual questions

3.5 Problems & Exercises

4 Doppler effect and sonic booms

5 Sound interference and resonance: standing waves in air columns

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Test prep for ap courses

5.3 Section summary

5.4 Conceptual questions

5.5 Problems & Exercises

Electric charge and electric field

Connection for ap® courses

1 Static electricity and charge: conservation of charge

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Charge carried by electrons and protons

1.3 Separation of charge in atoms

1.4 Test prep for ap courses

1.5 Section summary

1.6 Conceptual questions

1.7 Problems & Exercises

2 Conductors and insulators

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Charging by contact

2.3 Charging by induction

2.4 Test prep for ap courses

2.5 Section summary

2.6 Conceptual questions

2.7 Problems & Exercises

3 Conductors and electric fields in static equilibrium

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Earth's electric field

3.3 Electric fields on uneven surfaces

3.4 Applications of conductors

3.5 Test prep for ap courses

3.6 Section summary

3.7 Conceptual questions

3.8 Problems & Exercises

4 Coulomb’s law

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Test prep for ap courses

4.3 Section summary

4.4 Conceptual questions

4.5 Problems & Exercises

5 Electric field: concept of a field revisited

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Concept of a field

5.3 Test prep for ap courses

5.4 Section summary

5.5 Conceptual questions

5.6 Problem exercises

6 Electric field lines: multiple charges

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Adding electric fields

6.3 Test prep for ap courses

6.4 Section summary

6.5 Conceptual questions

6.6 Problem exercises

7 Electric forces in biology

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Polarity of water molecules

7.3 Section summary

7.4 Conceptual question

8 Applications of electrostatics

8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 The van de graaff generator

8.4 Laser printers

8.5 Ink jet printers and electrostatic painting

8.6 Smoke precipitators and electrostatic air cleaning

8.7 Integrated concepts

8.8 Acceleration of a charged drop of gasoline

8.9 Section summary

8.10 Problems & Exercises

Electric potential and electric field

Connection for ap® courses

1 Electric potential energy: potential difference

2 Electric potential in a uniform electric field

3 Electrical potential due to a point charge

4 Equipotential lines

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Test prep for ap courses

4.3 Section summary

4.4 Conceptual questions

4.5 Problems & Exercises

5 Capacitors and dielectrics

6 Capacitors in series and parallel

7 Energy stored in capacitors

Electric current, resistance, and ohm's law

Connection for ap® courses

2 Ohm’s law: resistance and simple circuits

2.1 Learning objectives

2.3 Resistance and simple circuits

2.4 Test prep for ap courses

2.5 Section summary

2.6 Conceptual questions

2.7 Problems & Exercises

3 Resistance and resistivity

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Material and shape dependence of resistance

3.3 Temperature variation of resistance

3.4 Test prep for ap courses

3.5 Section summary

3.6 Conceptual questions

3.7 Problems & Exercises

4 Electric power and energy

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Power in electric circuits

4.3 The cost of electricity

4.4 Test prep for ap courses

4.5 Section summary

4.6 Conceptual questions

4.7 Problem exercises

5 Alternating current versus direct current

6 Electric hazards and the human body

7 Nerve conduction–electrocardiograms

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Nerve conduction

7.3 Electrocardiograms

7.4 Section summary

7.5 Conceptual questions

7.6 Problems & Exercises

Circuits, bioelectricity, and dc instruments

Connection for ap® courses

1 Resistors in series and parallel

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Resistors in series

1.3 Calculating resistance, current, voltage drop, and power dissipation:

1.4 Resistors in parallel

1.5 Calculating resistance, current, power dissipation, and power output:

1.6 Combinations of series and parallel

1.7 Calculating resistance, IR Drop, current, and power dissipation: combining

1.8 Practical implications

1.9 Test prep for ap courses

1.10 Section summary

1.11 Conceptual questions

1.12 Problem exercises

2 Electromotive force: terminal voltage

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Electromotive force

2.3 Internal resistance

2.4 Terminal voltage

2.5 Calculating terminal voltage, power dissipation, current, and resistance

2.6 Multiple voltage sources

2.7 Animals as electrical detectors

2.8 Solar cell arrays

2.9 Test prep for ap courses

2.10 Section summary

2.11 Conceptual questions

2.12 Problem exercises

3 Kirchhoff’s rules

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Kirchhoff’s first rule

3.3 Kirchhoff’s second rule

3.4 Applying kirchhoff’s rules

3.5 Calculating current: using kirchhoff’s rules

3.6 Test prep for ap courses

3.7 Section summary

3.8 Conceptual questions

3.9 Problem exercises

4 Dc voltmeters and ammeters

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Analog meters: galvanometers

4.3 Galvanometer as voltmeter

4.4 Galvanometer as ammeter

4.5 Taking measurements alters the circuit

4.6 Section summary

4.7 Conceptual questions

4.8 Problem exercises

5 Null measurements

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 The potentiometer

5.3 Resistance measurements and the wheatstone bridge

5.4 Section summary

5.5 Conceptual questions

5.6 Problem exercises

6 Dc circuits containing resistors and capacitors

Connection for ap® courses

2 Ferromagnets and electromagnets

3 Magnetic fields and magnetic field lines

4 Magnetic field strength: force on a moving charge in a magnetic field

5 Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field: examples and applications

6 The hall effect

7 Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor

8 Torque on a current loop: motors and meters

9 Magnetic fields produced by currents: ampere’s law

9.1 Learning objectives

9.2 Magnetic field created by a long straight current-carrying wire: right

9.3 Ampere’s law and others

9.4 Magnetic field produced by a current-carrying circular loop

9.5 Magnetic field produced by a current-carrying solenoid

9.6 Test prep for ap courses

9.7 Section summary

9.8 Conceptual questions

10 Magnetic force between two parallel conductors

11 More applications of magnetism

Electromagnetic induction, ac circuits, and electrical technologies

Connection for ap® courses

1 Induced emf and magnetic flux

2 Faraday’s law of induction: lenz’s law

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Faraday’s and lenz’s law

2.3 Applications of electromagnetic induction

2.4 Section summary

2.5 Conceptual questions

2.6 Problems & Exercises

4 Eddy currents and magnetic damping

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Eddy currents and magnetic damping

4.3 Applications of magnetic damping

4.4 Section summary

4.5 Conceptual questions

4.6 Problems & Exercises

5 Electric generators

8 Electrical safety: systems and devices

9.1 Learning objectives

9.3 Energy stored in an inductor

9.4 Section summary

9.5 Conceptual questions

9.6 Problems & Exercises

11 Reactance, inductive and capacitive

11.1 Learning objectives

11.2 Inductors and inductive reactance

11.3 Capacitors and capacitive reactance

11.4 Resistors in an ac circuit

11.5 Section summary

11.6 Conceptual questions

11.7 Problems & Exercises

12 Rlc series ac circuits

Electromagnetic waves

Connection for ap® courses

0.1 Discovering a new phenomenon

1 Maxwell’s equations: electromagnetic waves predicted and observed

2 Production of electromagnetic waves

3 The electromagnetic spectrum

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Transmission, reflection, and absorption

3.3 Radio and tv waves

3.4 Fm radio waves

3.5 Radio wave interference

3.7 Heating with microwaves

3.8 Infrared radiation

3.9 Visible light

3.10 Integrated concept problem: correcting vision with lasers

3.11 Ultraviolet radiation

3.12 Human exposure to uv radiation

3.13 Uv light and the ozone layer

3.14 Benefits of uv light

3.16 Gamma rays

3.17 Detecting electromagnetic waves from space

3.18 Test prep for ap courses

3.19 Section summary

3.20 Conceptual questions

3.21 Problems & Exercises

4 Energy in electromagnetic waves

Geometric optics

Connection for ap® courses

1 The ray aspect of light

2 The law of reflection

3 The law of refraction

4 Total internal reflection

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Fiber optics: endoscopes to telephones

4.3 Corner reflectors and diamonds

4.4 The sparkle of diamonds

4.5 Test prep for ap courses

4.6 Section summary

4.7 Conceptual questions

4.8 Problems & Exercises

5 Dispersion: the rainbow and prisms

6 Image formation by lenses

7 Image formation by mirrors

Vision and optical instruments

Connection for ap® courses

1 Physics of the eye

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Test prep for ap courses

1.3 Section summary

1.4 Conceptual questions

1.5 Problem exercises

2 Vision correction

3 Color and color vision

Connection for ap® courses

1 The wave aspect of light: interference

2 Huygens's principle: diffraction

3 Young’s double slit experiment

4 Multiple slit diffraction

5 Single slit diffraction

6 Limits of resolution: the rayleigh criterion

7 Thin film interference

8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 Polarization by reflection

8.3 Polarization by scattering

8.4 Liquid crystals and other polarization effects in materials

8.5 Test prep for ap courses

8.6 Section summary

8.7 Conceptual questions

8.8 Problems & Exercises

9 *extended topic* microscopy enhanced by the wave characteristics of

Special relativity

Connection for ap® courses

1 Einstein’s postulates

2 Simultaneity and time dilation

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Simultaneity

2.3 Time dilation

2.4 The twin paradox

2.5 Section summary

2.6 Conceptual questions

2.7 Problems & Exercises

3 Length contraction

4 Relativistic addition of velocities

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Classical velocity addition

4.3 Relativistic velocity addition

4.4 Doppler shift

4.5 Test prep for ap courses

4.6 Section summary

4.7 Conceptual questions

4.8 Problems & Exercises

5 Relativistic momentum

6 Relativistic energy

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Total energy and rest energy

6.3 Stored energy and potential energy

6.4 Calculating rest mass: a small mass increase due to energy input

6.5 Kinetic energy and the ultimate speed limit

6.6 Comparing kinetic energy: relativistic energy versus classical kinetic

6.7 Relativistic energy and momentum

6.8 Test prep for ap courses

6.9 Section summary

6.10 Conceptual questions

6.11 Problems & Exercises

Introduction to quantum physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Quantization of energy

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Planck’s contribution

1.3 Atomic spectra

1.4 Test prep for ap courses

1.5 Section summary

1.6 Conceptual questions

1.7 Problems & Exercises

2 The photoelectric effect

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Calculating photon energy and the photoelectric effect: a violet light

2.3 Test prep for ap courses

2.4 Section summary

2.5 Conceptual questions

2.6 Problems & Exercises

3 Photon energies and the electromagnetic spectrum

4 Photon momentum

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Measuring photon momentum

4.3 Electron and photon momentum compared

4.4 Relativistic photon momentum

4.5 Test prep for ap courses

4.6 Test prep for ap courses

4.7 Section summary

4.8 Conceptual questions

4.9 Problems & Exercises

5 The particle-wave duality

6 The wave nature of matter

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 De broglie wavelength

6.3 Electron microscopes

6.4 Test prep for ap courses

6.5 Test prep for ap courses

6.6 Section summary

6.7 Conceptual questions

6.8 Problems & Exercises

7 Probability: the heisenberg uncertainty principle

8 The particle-wave duality reviewed

Connection for ap® courses

1 Discovery of the atom

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Section summary

1.3 Conceptual questions

1.4 Problems & Exercises

2 Discovery of the parts of the atom: electrons and nuclei

3 Bohr’s theory of the hydrogen atom

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Mysteries of atomic spectra

3.3 Bohr’s solution for hydrogen

3.4 Triumphs and limits of the bohr theory

3.5 Test prep for ap courses

3.6 Section summary

3.7 Conceptual questions

3.8 Problems & Exercises

4 X rays: atomic origins and applications

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Characteristic x-ray energy

4.3 Medical and other diagnostic uses of x-rays

4.4 X-ray diffraction and crystallography

4.5 Section summary

4.6 Conceptual questions

4.7 Problem exercises

5 Applications of atomic excitations and de-excitations

6 The wave nature of matter causes quantization

7 Patterns in spectra reveal more quantization

8 Quantum numbers and rules

9 The pauli exclusion principle

9.1 Learning objectives

9.2 Multiple-electron atoms

9.3 Shells and subshells

9.4 Shell filling and the periodic table

9.5 Section summary

9.6 Conceptual questions

9.7 Problem exercises

Radioactivity and nuclear physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Nuclear radioactivity

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Discovery of nuclear radioactivity

1.3 Alpha, beta, and gamma

1.4 Ionization and range

1.5 Test prep for ap courses

1.6 Section summary

1.7 Conceptual questions

2 Radiation detection and detectors

3 Substructure of the nucleus

4 Nuclear decay and conservation laws

5 Half-life and activity

5.1 Learning objectives

5.3 Activity, the rate of decay

5.4 How great is the 14 C Activity in living tissue?

5.5 Human and medical applications

5.6 Test prep for ap courses

5.7 Section summary

5.8 Conceptual questions

5.9 Problems & Exercises

6 Binding energy

Medical applications of nuclear physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Medical imaging and diagnostics

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Medical application

1.3 Section summary

1.4 Conceptual questions

1.5 Problems & Exercises

2 Biological effects of ionizing radiation

3 Therapeutic uses of ionizing radiation

4 Food irradiation

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Calculating energy and power from fusion

5.3 Test prep for ap courses

5.4 Section summary

5.5 Conceptual questions

5.6 Problems & Exercises

7 Nuclear weapons

Particle physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 The yukawa particle and the heisenberg uncertainty principle revisited

2 The four basic forces

3 Accelerators create matter from energy

4 Particles, patterns, and conservation laws

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Matter and antimatter

4.3 Hadrons and leptons

4.4 Mesons and baryons

4.5 Forces, reactions, and reaction rates

4.6 Calculating quantum numbers in two decays

4.7 Test prep for ap courses

4.9 Conceptual questions

4.10 Problems & Exercises

5 Quarks: is that all there is?

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Conception of quarks

5.3 How does it work?

5.4 All combinations are possible

5.5 Now, let us talk about direct evidence

5.6 Quarks have their ups and downs

5.7 What's color got to do with it?—a whiter shade of pale

5.8 The three families

5.9 Test prep for ap courses

5.11 Conceptual questions

5.12 Problems & Exercises

6 Guts: the unification of forces

Frontiers of physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Cosmology and particle physics

2 General relativity and quantum gravity

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 General relativity

2.3 Quantum gravity

2.4 Section summary

2.5 Conceptual questions

2.6 Problems & Exercises

4 Dark matter and closure

4.1 Learning objectives

4.3 Theoretical yearnings for closure

4.4 What is the dark matter we see indirectly?

4.5 Section summary

4.6 Conceptual questions

4.7 Problems exercises

5 Complexity and chaos

6 High-temperature superconductors

7 Some questions we know to ask

Source: OpenStax, College physics for ap® courses. OpenStax CNX. Nov 04, 2016 Download for free at https://legacy.cnx.org/content/col11844/1.14

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