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But let us now close in a little more closely on this matter of the education of the will. Your task is to build up a character in your pupils; and a character, as I have so often said, consists in an organized set of habits of reaction. Now of what do such habits of reaction themselves consist? They consist of tendencies to act characteristically when certain ideas possess us, and to refrain characteristically when possessed by other ideas (p. 816).
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Table 1.1: Sampling of Cross-Cultural Research in Select Psychology Journals Since the Year 2000 |
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| Attachment | Chao, 2001; Gjerde, 2001; Kondo-Ikemura, 2001; Posada&Jacobs, 2001; Rothbaum et al., 2000; Rothbaum et al., 2001; van Ijzendoorn&Sagi, 2001 |
| Child Development | Callaghan et al., 2005; Goldin-Meadow&Saltzman, 2000; Lal, 2002 |
| Cognitive Dissonance | Kitayama et al., 2004 |
| Cognition and Creativity | Antonio et al., 2004; German&Barrett, 2005; Hong et al., 2000; Leung et al., 2008; Norenzayan&Nisbett, 2000; Tomasello, 2000 |
| Conflict and Perceptions of Safety | Eidelson&Eidelson, 2003; Graham, 2006; Juvonen et al., 2006; Van Vugt et al., 2007 |
| Cooperation | Wong&Hong, 2005 |
| Cultural Research and Cultural Competency in Psychotherapy | Goldston et al., 2008; Heine&Norenzayan, 2006; Leong, 2007; Matsumoto&Yoo, 2006; Smith et al., 2006; Sue, 2003; Vasquez, 2007; Whaley&Davis, 2007 |
| Education | Tucker&Herman, 2002 |
| Emotion | Elfenbein&Ambady, 2003; Frijda&Sundararajan, 2007; Hejmadi et al., 2000; Tsai, 2007 |
| Globalization, Nationality, Race Relations | Arnett, 2002; Heine et al., 2008; Henry&Hardin, 2006; Inglehart et al., 2008; McCrae&Terracciano, 2006; Sue, 2004; Tropp&Pettigrew, 2005 |
| Family Dynamics | Dudley-Grant, 2001; Halpern, 2001; Kameguchi&Murphy-Shigematsu, 2001; Kaslow, 2001 |
| Goal-Seeking Behavior | Elliot et al., 2001; Markus et al., 2006 |
| Intelligence | Daley et al., 2003; Sternberg, 2004 |
| Learning | Gurung, 2003; Li, 2003; Li, 2005; McBride-Chang&Treiman, 2003; Tweed&Lehman, 2002; Tweed&Lehman, 2003 |
| Memory | Cohen&Gunz, 2002; Fivush&Nelson, 2004 |
| Neural Substrates of Attention | Hedden et al., 2008 |
| Perception and Spatial Representation | Bar-Haim et al., 2006; Cohen&Gunz, 2002; Dobel et al., 2007; Feng et al., 2007; Ji et al., 2001; Kitayama et al., 2003; Leung&Cogen, 2007; Maass&Russo, 2003; Miyamoto et al., 2006 |
| Self, Self-esteem, Social Perspective | Perunovic&Heller, 2007; Wang, 2006a,b; Wu&Keysar, 2007; Yamagishi et al., 2008; Yamaguchi et al., 2007 |
| Stress Responses | Taylor et al., 2007 |
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Table 1.2: Brief Comparison of Factors Influencing Personality |
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| Psychodynamic Factors | Emphasis is on the unconscious mind, interactions between elements of the mind, early childhood experiences, stages of development, defense mechanisms, etc. |
| Learning and Cognitive Factors | Emphasis is on environmental stimuli and/or thought patterns that predictably influence behavior; focus is on observable behavior or identifiable thoughts. |
| Biological Factors | Emphasis is on genetic factors, which set ranges within which the individual may develop. This approach does not ignore the environment, but genetic factors (e.g., inborn traits and temperament) may cause different environmental influences to be experienced in similar ways, or conversely, may cause similar environmental influences to be experienced in different ways. |
| Inherent Drives | Humanistic psychologists focus on self-actualization; existentialists and spiritually-oriented psychologists focus on the search for meaning in one’s life. |
| Sociocultural Influences | Cross-cultural and multicultural psychologists remind us that all of the above categories must be considered in terms of the rich diversity that is the human experience. Addresses both the differences between and the similarities among groups of people around the world. |
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