# 6.20 Source coding theorem

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The Source Coding Theorem states that the entropy of an alphabet of symbols specifies to within one bit how many bits on the average need to be used to send the alphabet.

The significance of an alphabet's entropy rests in how we can represent it with a sequence of bits . Bit sequences form the "coin of the realm" in digitalcommunications: they are the universal way of representing symbolic-valued signals. We convert back and forth betweensymbols to bit-sequences with what is known as a codebook : a table that associates symbols to bit sequences. In creating this table, we must be able to assign a unique bit sequence to each symbol so that we can go between symbol and bit sequences without error.

You may be conjuring the notion of hiding information from others when we use the name codebook for thesymbol-to-bit-sequence table. There is no relation to cryptology, which comprises mathematically provable methods ofsecuring information. The codebook terminology was developed during the beginnings of information theory just after WorldWar II.

As we shall explore in some detail elsewhere, digital communication is the transmission of symbolic-valued signals from one place toanother. When faced with the problem, for example, of sending a file across the Internet, we must first represent eachcharacter by a bit sequence. Because we want to send the file quickly, we want to use as few bits as possible. However, wedon't want to use so few bits that the receiver cannot determine what each character was from the bit sequence. Forexample, we could use one bit for every character: File transmission would be fast but useless because the codebookcreates errors. Shannon proved in his monumental work what we call today the Source Coding Theorem . Let $B({a}_{k})$ denote the number of bits used to represent the symbol ${a}_{k}$ . The average number of bits $\langle B(A)\rangle$ required to represent the entire alphabet equals $\sum_{k=1}^{K} B({a}_{k})({a}_{k})$ . The Source Coding Theorem states that the average number of bits needed to accurately represent the alphabet need only to satisfy

$H(A)\le \langle B(A)\rangle < H(A)+1$
Thus, the alphabet's entropy specifies to within one bit how many bits on the average need to be used to send the alphabet.The smaller an alphabet's entropy, the fewer bits required for digital transmission of files expressed in that alphabet.

A four-symbol alphabet has the following probabilities. $({a}_{0})=\frac{1}{2}$ $({a}_{1})=\frac{1}{4}$ $({a}_{2})=\frac{1}{8}$ $({a}_{3})=\frac{1}{8}$ and an entropy of 1.75 bits . Let's see if we can find a codebook for this four-letter alphabet that satisfies the Source CodingTheorem. The simplest code to try is known as the simple binary code : convert the symbol's index into a binary number and use the same number of bits for each symbol byincluding leading zeros where necessary.

$↔({a}_{0}, \mathrm{00})\text{}↔({a}_{1}, \mathrm{01})\text{}↔({a}_{2}, \mathrm{10})\text{}↔({a}_{3}, \mathrm{11})$
Whenever the number of symbols in the alphabet is a power oftwo (as in this case), the average number of bits $\langle B(A)\rangle$ equals $\log_{2}K$ , which equals $2$ in this case. Because the entropy equals $1.75$ bits, the simple binary code indeed satisfies the Source Coding Theorem—we arewithin one bit of the entropy limit—but you might wonder if you can do better. If we choose a codebook with differingnumber of bits for the symbols, a smaller average number of bits can indeed be obtained. The idea is to use shorter bitsequences for the symbols that occur more often. One codebook like this is
$↔({a}_{0}, 0)\text{}↔({a}_{1}, \mathrm{10})\text{}↔({a}_{2}, \mathrm{110})\text{}↔({a}_{3}, \mathrm{111})$
Now $\langle B(A)\rangle =1·\frac{1}{2}+2·\frac{1}{4}+3·\frac{1}{8}+3·\frac{1}{8}=1.75$ . We can reach the entropy limit! The simple binary code is, in this case, less efficient than theunequal-length code. Using the efficient code, we can transmit the symbolic-valued signal having this alphabet 12.5%faster. Furthermore, we know that no more efficient codebook can be found because of Shannon's Theorem.

Is there any normative that regulates the use of silver nanoparticles?
what king of growth are you checking .?
Renato
What fields keep nano created devices from performing or assimulating ? Magnetic fields ? Are do they assimilate ?
why we need to study biomolecules, molecular biology in nanotechnology?
?
Kyle
yes I'm doing my masters in nanotechnology, we are being studying all these domains as well..
why?
what school?
Kyle
biomolecules are e building blocks of every organics and inorganic materials.
Joe
anyone know any internet site where one can find nanotechnology papers?
research.net
kanaga
sciencedirect big data base
Ernesto
Introduction about quantum dots in nanotechnology
what does nano mean?
nano basically means 10^(-9). nanometer is a unit to measure length.
Bharti
do you think it's worthwhile in the long term to study the effects and possibilities of nanotechnology on viral treatment?
absolutely yes
Daniel
how to know photocatalytic properties of tio2 nanoparticles...what to do now
it is a goid question and i want to know the answer as well
Maciej
Abigail
for teaching engĺish at school how nano technology help us
Anassong
Do somebody tell me a best nano engineering book for beginners?
there is no specific books for beginners but there is book called principle of nanotechnology
NANO
what is fullerene does it is used to make bukky balls
are you nano engineer ?
s.
fullerene is a bucky ball aka Carbon 60 molecule. It was name by the architect Fuller. He design the geodesic dome. it resembles a soccer ball.
Tarell
what is the actual application of fullerenes nowadays?
Damian
That is a great question Damian. best way to answer that question is to Google it. there are hundreds of applications for buck minister fullerenes, from medical to aerospace. you can also find plenty of research papers that will give you great detail on the potential applications of fullerenes.
Tarell
what is the Synthesis, properties,and applications of carbon nano chemistry
Mostly, they use nano carbon for electronics and for materials to be strengthened.
Virgil
is Bucky paper clear?
CYNTHIA
carbon nanotubes has various application in fuel cells membrane, current research on cancer drug,and in electronics MEMS and NEMS etc
NANO
so some one know about replacing silicon atom with phosphorous in semiconductors device?
Yeah, it is a pain to say the least. You basically have to heat the substarte up to around 1000 degrees celcius then pass phosphene gas over top of it, which is explosive and toxic by the way, under very low pressure.
Harper
Do you know which machine is used to that process?
s.
how to fabricate graphene ink ?
for screen printed electrodes ?
SUYASH
What is lattice structure?
of graphene you mean?
Ebrahim
or in general
Ebrahim
in general
s.
Graphene has a hexagonal structure
tahir
On having this app for quite a bit time, Haven't realised there's a chat room in it.
Cied
what is biological synthesis of nanoparticles