# 21.5 Null measurements  (Page 2/8)

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$\frac{{\text{emf}}_{x}}{{\text{emf}}_{s}}=\frac{{\text{IR}}_{x}}{{\text{IR}}_{s}}=\frac{{R}_{x}}{{R}_{s}}.$

Solving for ${\text{emf}}_{x}$ gives

${\text{emf}}_{x}={\text{emf}}_{s}\frac{{R}_{x}}{{R}_{s}}.$

Because a long uniform wire is used for $R$ , the ratio of resistances ${R}_{\text{x}}/{R}_{\text{s}}$ is the same as the ratio of the lengths of wire that zero the galvanometer for each emf. The three quantities on the right-hand side of the equation are now known or measured, and ${\text{emf}}_{\text{x}}$ can be calculated. The uncertainty in this calculation can be considerably smaller than when using a voltmeter directly, but it is not zero. There is always some uncertainty in the ratio of resistances ${R}_{\text{x}}/{R}_{\text{s}}$ and in the standard ${\text{emf}}_{s}$ . Furthermore, it is not possible to tell when the galvanometer reads exactly zero, which introduces error into both ${R}_{\text{x}}$ and ${R}_{\text{s}}$ , and may also affect the current $I$ .

## Resistance measurements and the wheatstone bridge

There is a variety of so-called ohmmeters that purport to measure resistance. What the most common ohmmeters actually do is to apply a voltage to a resistance, measure the current, and calculate the resistance using Ohm’s law. Their readout is this calculated resistance. Two configurations for ohmmeters using standard voltmeters and ammeters are shown in [link] . Such configurations are limited in accuracy, because the meters alter both the voltage applied to the resistor and the current that flows through it.

The Wheatstone bridge    is a null measurement device for calculating resistance by balancing potential drops in a circuit. (See [link] .) The device is called a bridge because the galvanometer forms a bridge between two branches. A variety of bridge devices are used to make null measurements in circuits.

Resistors ${R}_{1}$ and ${R}_{2}$ are precisely known, while the arrow through ${R}_{3}$ indicates that it is a variable resistance. The value of ${R}_{3}$ can be precisely read. With the unknown resistance ${R}_{x}$ in the circuit, ${R}_{3}$ is adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero. The potential difference between points b and d is then zero, meaning that b and d are at the same potential. With no current running through the galvanometer, it has no effect on the rest of the circuit. So the branches abc and adc are in parallel, and each branch has the full voltage of the source. That is, the $\text{IR}$ drops along abc and adc are the same. Since b and d are at the same potential, the $\text{IR}$ drop along ad must equal the $\text{IR}$ drop along ab. Thus,

Is there any normative that regulates the use of silver nanoparticles?
what king of growth are you checking .?
Renato
What fields keep nano created devices from performing or assimulating ? Magnetic fields ? Are do they assimilate ?
why we need to study biomolecules, molecular biology in nanotechnology?
?
Kyle
yes I'm doing my masters in nanotechnology, we are being studying all these domains as well..
why?
what school?
Kyle
biomolecules are e building blocks of every organics and inorganic materials.
Joe
anyone know any internet site where one can find nanotechnology papers?
research.net
kanaga
sciencedirect big data base
Ernesto
Introduction about quantum dots in nanotechnology
what does nano mean?
nano basically means 10^(-9). nanometer is a unit to measure length.
Bharti
do you think it's worthwhile in the long term to study the effects and possibilities of nanotechnology on viral treatment?
absolutely yes
Daniel
how to know photocatalytic properties of tio2 nanoparticles...what to do now
it is a goid question and i want to know the answer as well
Maciej
Abigail
for teaching engĺish at school how nano technology help us
Anassong
Do somebody tell me a best nano engineering book for beginners?
there is no specific books for beginners but there is book called principle of nanotechnology
NANO
what is fullerene does it is used to make bukky balls
are you nano engineer ?
s.
fullerene is a bucky ball aka Carbon 60 molecule. It was name by the architect Fuller. He design the geodesic dome. it resembles a soccer ball.
Tarell
what is the actual application of fullerenes nowadays?
Damian
That is a great question Damian. best way to answer that question is to Google it. there are hundreds of applications for buck minister fullerenes, from medical to aerospace. you can also find plenty of research papers that will give you great detail on the potential applications of fullerenes.
Tarell
what is the Synthesis, properties,and applications of carbon nano chemistry
Mostly, they use nano carbon for electronics and for materials to be strengthened.
Virgil
is Bucky paper clear?
CYNTHIA
carbon nanotubes has various application in fuel cells membrane, current research on cancer drug,and in electronics MEMS and NEMS etc
NANO
so some one know about replacing silicon atom with phosphorous in semiconductors device?
Yeah, it is a pain to say the least. You basically have to heat the substarte up to around 1000 degrees celcius then pass phosphene gas over top of it, which is explosive and toxic by the way, under very low pressure.
Harper
Do you know which machine is used to that process?
s.
how to fabricate graphene ink ?
for screen printed electrodes ?
SUYASH
What is lattice structure?
of graphene you mean?
Ebrahim
or in general
Ebrahim
in general
s.
Graphene has a hexagonal structure
tahir
On having this app for quite a bit time, Haven't realised there's a chat room in it.
Cied
what is biological synthesis of nanoparticles
how did you get the value of 2000N.What calculations are needed to arrive at it
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