# 10.3 Standard reduction potentials  (Page 2/5)

 Page 2 / 5
$\text{Cu}\left(s\right)│{\text{Cu}}^{2+}\left(aq,\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}1\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}M\right)║{\text{Ag}}^{\text{+}}\left(aq,\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}1\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}M\right)│\text{Ag}\left(s\right)$
$\begin{array}{}\\ \underset{¯}{\begin{array}{l}\text{anode (oxidation):}\phantom{\rule{5.5em}{0ex}}\text{Cu}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Cu}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\\ \text{cathode (reduction):}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}2{\text{Ag}}^{\text{+}}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{2Ag}\left(s\right)\end{array}}\\ \text{overall:}\phantom{\rule{4.7em}{0ex}}\text{Cu}\left(s\right)+{\text{2Ag}}^{\text{+}}\left(aq\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Cu}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+\text{2Ag}\left(s\right)\end{array}$
${E}_{\text{cell}}^{°}={E}_{\text{cathode}}^{°}-{E}_{\text{anode}}^{°}={E}_{{\text{Ag}}^{\text{+}}\text{/Ag}}^{°}-{E}_{{\text{Cu}}^{2+}\text{/Cu}}^{°}=\text{0.80 V}-\text{0.34 V}=0.4\text{6 V}$

Again, note that when calculating ${E}_{\text{cell}}^{°},$ standard reduction potentials always remain the same even when a half-reaction is multiplied by a factor. Standard reduction potentials for selected reduction reactions are shown in [link] . A more complete list is provided in Appendix L .

Selected Standard Reduction Potentials at 25 °C
Half-Reaction E ° (V)
${\text{F}}_{2}\left(g\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{2F}}^{\text{−}}\left(aq\right)$ +2.866
${\text{PbO}}_{2}\left(s\right)+{\text{SO}}_{4}{}^{2-}\left(aq\right)+{\text{4H}}^{\text{+}}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{PbSO}}_{4}\left(s\right)+{\text{2H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(l\right)$ +1.69
${\text{MnO}}_{4}{}^{\text{−}}\left(aq\right)+{\text{8H}}^{\text{+}}\left(aq\right)+{\text{5e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Mn}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{4H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(l\right)$ +1.507
${\text{Au}}^{3+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{3e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Au}\left(s\right)$ +1.498
${\text{Cl}}_{2}\left(g\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{2Cl}}^{\text{−}}\left(aq\right)$ +1.35827
${\text{O}}_{2}\left(g\right)+{\text{4H}}^{\text{+}}\left(aq\right)+{\text{4e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{2H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(l\right)$ +1.229
${\text{Pt}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Pt}\left(s\right)$ +1.20
${\text{Br}}_{2}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{2Br}}^{\text{−}}\left(aq\right)$ +1.0873
${\text{Ag}}^{\text{+}}\left(aq\right)+{\text{e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Ag}\left(s\right)$ +0.7996
${\text{Hg}}_{2}{}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{2Hg}\left(l\right)$ +0.7973
${\text{Fe}}^{3+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Fe}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)$ +0.771
${\text{MnO}}_{4}{}^{\text{−}}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(l\right)+{\text{3e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{MnO}}_{2}\left(s\right)+{\text{4OH}}^{\text{−}}\left(aq\right)$ +0.558
${\text{I}}_{2}\left(s\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{2I}}^{\text{−}}\left(aq\right)$ +0.5355
${\text{NiO}}_{2}\left(s\right)+{\text{2H}}_{2}\text{O}\left(l\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Ni(OH)}}_{2}\left(s\right)+{\text{2OH}}^{\text{−}}\left(aq\right)$ +0.49
${\text{Cu}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Cu}\left(s\right)$ +0.337
${\text{Hg}}_{2}{\text{Cl}}_{2}\left(s\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{2Hg}\left(l\right)+{\text{2Cl}}^{\text{−}}\left(aq\right)$ +0.26808
$\text{AgCl}\left(s\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Ag}\left(s\right)+{\text{Cl}}^{\text{−}}\left(aq\right)$ +0.22233
${\text{Sn}}^{4+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Sn}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)$ +0.151
${\text{2H}}^{\text{+}}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{H}}_{2}\left(g\right)$ 0.00
${\text{Pb}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Pb}\left(s\right)$ −0.126
${\text{Sn}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Sn}\left(s\right)$ −0.1262
${\text{Ni}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Ni}\left(s\right)$ −0.257
${\text{Co}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Co}\left(s\right)$ −0.28
${\text{PbSO}}_{4}\left(s\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Pb}\left(s\right)+{\text{SO}}_{4}{}^{2-}\left(aq\right)$ −0.3505
${\text{Cd}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Cd}\left(s\right)$ −0.4030
${\text{Fe}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Fe}\left(s\right)$ −0.447
${\text{Cr}}^{3+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{3e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Cr}\left(s\right)$ −0.744
${\text{Mn}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Mn}\left(s\right)$ −1.185
${\text{Zn(OH)}}_{2}\left(s\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Zn}\left(s\right)+{\text{2OH}}^{\text{−}}\left(aq\right)$ −1.245
${\text{Zn}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Zn}\left(s\right)$ −0.7618
${\text{Al}}^{3+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{3e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Al}\left(s\right)$ −1.662
${\text{Mg}}^{2}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Mg}\left(s\right)$ −2.372
${\text{Na}}^{\text{+}}\left(aq\right)+{\text{e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Na}\left(s\right)$ −2.71
${\text{Ca}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Ca}\left(s\right)$ −2.868
${\text{Ba}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Ba}\left(s\right)$ −2.912
${\text{K}}^{\text{+}}\left(aq\right)+{\text{e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{K}\left(s\right)$ −2.931
${\text{Li}}^{\text{+}}\left(aq\right)+{\text{e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Li}\left(s\right)$ −3.04

Tables like this make it possible to determine the standard cell potential for many oxidation-reduction reactions.

## Cell potentials from standard reduction potentials

What is the standard cell potential for a galvanic cell that consists of Au 3+ /Au and Ni 2+ /Ni half-cells? Identify the oxidizing and reducing agents.

## Solution

Using [link] , the reactions involved in the galvanic cell, both written as reductions, are

${\text{Au}}^{3+}\left(aq\right)+3{\text{e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Au}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{4em}{0ex}}{E}_{{\text{Au}}^{3+}\text{/Au}}^{°}=\text{+1.498 V}$
${\text{Ni}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+2{\text{e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Ni}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{4em}{0ex}}{E}_{{\text{Ni}}^{2+}\text{/Ni}}^{°}=\text{−0.257 V}$

Galvanic cells have positive cell potentials, and all the reduction reactions are reversible. The reaction at the anode will be the half-reaction with the smaller or more negative standard reduction potential. Reversing the reaction at the anode (to show the oxidation) but not its standard reduction potential gives:

$\begin{array}{}\\ \\ \text{Anode (oxidation):}\phantom{\rule{5.7em}{0ex}}\text{Ni}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Ni}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{2e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{2em}{0ex}}{E}_{\text{anode}}^{°}={E}_{{\text{Ni}}^{2+}\text{/Ni}}^{°}=\text{−0.257 V}\\ {\text{Cathode (reduction): Au}}^{3+}\left(aq\right)+{\text{3e}}^{\text{−}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\text{Au}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{4em}{0ex}}{E}_{\text{cathode}}^{°}={E}_{{\text{Au}}^{3+}\text{/Au}}^{°}=+1.498 V\end{array}$

The least common factor is six, so the overall reaction is

$\text{3Ni}\left(s\right)+{\text{2Au}}^{3+}\left(aq\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{3Ni}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+\text{2Au}\left(s\right)$

The reduction potentials are not scaled by the stoichiometric coefficients when calculating the cell potential, and the unmodified standard reduction potentials must be used.

${E}_{\text{cell}}^{°}={E}_{\text{cathode}}^{°}-{E}_{\text{anode}}^{°}=\text{1.498 V}-\left(-0.2\text{57 V}\right)=1.7\text{55 V}$

From the half-reactions, Ni is oxidized, so it is the reducing agent, and Au 3+ is reduced, so it is the oxidizing agent.

A galvanic cell consists of a Mg electrode in 1 M Mg(NO 3 ) 2 solution and a Ag electrode in 1 M AgNO 3 solution. Calculate the standard cell potential at 25 °C.

$\text{Mg}\left(s\right)+2{\text{Ag}}^{\text{+}}\left(aq\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Mg}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+2\text{Ag}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{4em}{0ex}}{E}_{\text{cell}}^{°}=0.7\text{996 V}-\left(-2.3\text{72 V}\right)=3.17\text{2 V}$

## Key concepts and summary

Assigning the potential of the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) as zero volts allows the determination of standard reduction potentials, , for half-reactions in electrochemical cells. As the name implies, standard reduction potentials use standard states (1 bar or 1 atm for gases; 1 M for solutes, often at 298.15 K) and are written as reductions (where electrons appear on the left side of the equation). The reduction reactions are reversible, so standard cell potentials can be calculated by subtracting the standard reduction potential for the reaction at the anode from the standard reduction for the reaction at the cathode. When calculating the standard cell potential, the standard reduction potentials are not scaled by the stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced overall equation.

## Key equations

• ${E}_{\text{cell}}^{°}={E}_{\text{cathode}}^{°}-{E}_{\text{anode}}^{°}$

## Chemistry end of chapter exercises

For each reaction listed, determine its standard cell potential at 25 °C and whether the reaction is spontaneous at standard conditions.

(a) $\text{Mg}\left(s\right)+{\text{Ni}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Mg}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+\text{Ni}\left(s\right)$

(b) $2{\text{Ag}}^{\text{+}}\left(aq\right)+\text{Cu}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Cu}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+\text{2Ag}\left(s\right)$

(c) $\text{Mn}\left(s\right)+{\text{Sn(NO}}_{3}{\right)}_{2}\left(aq\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Mn(NO}}_{3}{\right)}_{2}\left(aq\right)+\text{Sn}\left(s\right)$

(d) $3{\text{Fe(NO}}_{3}{\right)}_{2}\left(aq\right)+{\text{Au(NO}}_{3}{\right)}_{3}\left(aq\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{3Fe(NO}}_{3}{\right)}_{3}\left(aq\right)+\text{Au}\left(s\right)$

(a) +2.115 V (spontaneous); (b) +0.4626 V (spontaneous); (c) +1.0589 V (spontaneous); (d) +0.727 V (spontaneous)

For each reaction listed, determine its standard cell potential at 25 °C and whether the reaction is spontaneous at standard conditions.

(a) $\text{Mn}\left(s\right)+{\text{Ni}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Mn}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+\text{Ni}\left(s\right)$

(b) $3{\text{Cu}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+\text{2Al}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{2Al}}^{3+}\left(aq\right)+\text{2Cu}\left(s\right)$

(c) $\text{Na}\left(s\right)+{\text{LiNO}}_{3}\left(aq\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{NaNO}}_{3}\left(aq\right)+\text{Li}\left(s\right)$

(d) ${\text{Ca(NO}}_{3}{\right)}_{2}\left(aq\right)+\text{Ba}\left(s\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{Ba(NO}}_{3}{\right)}_{2}\left(aq\right)+\text{Ca}\left(s\right)$

Determine the overall reaction and its standard cell potential at 25 °C for this reaction. Is the reaction spontaneous at standard conditions?

$\text{Cu}\left(s\right)│{\text{Cu}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)║{\text{Au}}^{3+}\left(aq\right)│\text{Au}\left(s\right)$

$3\text{Cu}\left(s\right)+{\text{2Au}}^{3+}\left(aq\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{3Cu}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+\text{2Au}\left(s\right)\text{;}$ +1.16 V; spontaneous

Determine the overall reaction and its standard cell potential at 25 °C for the reaction involving the galvanic cell made from a half-cell consisting of a silver electrode in 1 M silver nitrate solution and a half-cell consisting of a zinc electrode in 1 M zinc nitrate. Is the reaction spontaneous at standard conditions?

Determine the overall reaction and its standard cell potential at 25 °C for the reaction involving the galvanic cell in which cadmium metal is oxidized to 1 M cadmium(II) ion and a half-cell consisting of an aluminum electrode in 1 M aluminum nitrate solution. Is the reaction spontaneous at standard conditions?

$3\text{Cd}\left(s\right)+{\text{2Al}}^{3+}\left(aq\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{3Cd}}^{2+}\left(aq\right)+\text{2Al}\left(s\right);$ −1.259 V; nonspontaneous

Determine the overall reaction and its standard cell potential at 25 °C for these reactions. Is the reaction spontaneous at standard conditions? Assume the standard reduction for Br 2 ( l ) is the same as for Br 2 ( aq ).
$\text{Pt}\left(s\right)│{\text{H}}_{2}\left(g\right)│{\text{H}}^{\text{+}}\left(aq\right)║{\text{Br}}_{2}\left(aq\right)│{\text{Br}}^{\text{−}}\left(aq\right)│\text{Pt}\left(s\right)$

what is the stm
is there industrial application of fullrenes. What is the method to prepare fullrene on large scale.?
Rafiq
industrial application...? mmm I think on the medical side as drug carrier, but you should go deeper on your research, I may be wrong
Damian
How we are making nano material?
what is a peer
What is meant by 'nano scale'?
What is STMs full form?
LITNING
scanning tunneling microscope
Sahil
how nano science is used for hydrophobicity
Santosh
Do u think that Graphene and Fullrene fiber can be used to make Air Plane body structure the lightest and strongest. Rafiq
Rafiq
what is differents between GO and RGO?
Mahi
what is simplest way to understand the applications of nano robots used to detect the cancer affected cell of human body.? How this robot is carried to required site of body cell.? what will be the carrier material and how can be detected that correct delivery of drug is done Rafiq
Rafiq
what is Nano technology ?
write examples of Nano molecule?
Bob
The nanotechnology is as new science, to scale nanometric
brayan
nanotechnology is the study, desing, synthesis, manipulation and application of materials and functional systems through control of matter at nanoscale
Damian
Is there any normative that regulates the use of silver nanoparticles?
what king of growth are you checking .?
Renato
What fields keep nano created devices from performing or assimulating ? Magnetic fields ? Are do they assimilate ?
why we need to study biomolecules, molecular biology in nanotechnology?
?
Kyle
yes I'm doing my masters in nanotechnology, we are being studying all these domains as well..
why?
what school?
Kyle
biomolecules are e building blocks of every organics and inorganic materials.
Joe
anyone know any internet site where one can find nanotechnology papers?
research.net
kanaga
sciencedirect big data base
Ernesto
Introduction about quantum dots in nanotechnology
what does nano mean?
nano basically means 10^(-9). nanometer is a unit to measure length.
Bharti
do you think it's worthwhile in the long term to study the effects and possibilities of nanotechnology on viral treatment?
absolutely yes
Daniel
how to know photocatalytic properties of tio2 nanoparticles...what to do now
it is a goid question and i want to know the answer as well
Maciej
Abigail
for teaching engĺish at school how nano technology help us
Anassong
How can I make nanorobot?
Lily
Do somebody tell me a best nano engineering book for beginners?
there is no specific books for beginners but there is book called principle of nanotechnology
NANO
how can I make nanorobot?
Lily
what is fullerene does it is used to make bukky balls
are you nano engineer ?
s.
fullerene is a bucky ball aka Carbon 60 molecule. It was name by the architect Fuller. He design the geodesic dome. it resembles a soccer ball.
Tarell
what is the actual application of fullerenes nowadays?
Damian
That is a great question Damian. best way to answer that question is to Google it. there are hundreds of applications for buck minister fullerenes, from medical to aerospace. you can also find plenty of research papers that will give you great detail on the potential applications of fullerenes.
Tarell
how did you get the value of 2000N.What calculations are needed to arrive at it
Privacy Information Security Software Version 1.1a
Good
how do you find theWhat are the wavelengths and energies per photon of two lines
The eyes of some reptiles are sensitive to 850 nm light. If the minimum energy to trigger the receptor at this wavelength is 3.15 x 10-14 J, what is the minimum number of 850 nm photons that must hit the receptor in order for it to be triggered?
A teaspoon of the carbohydrate sucrose contains 16 calories, what is the mass of one teaspoo of sucrose if the average number of calories for carbohydrate is 4.1 calories/g?
4. On the basis of dipole moments and/or hydrogen bonding, explain in a qualitative way the differences in the boiling points of acetone (56.2 °C) and 1-propanol (97.4 °C), which have similar molar masses
Calculate the bond order for an ion with this configuration: (?2s)2(??2s)2(?2px)2(?2py,?2pz)4(??2py,??2pz)3
Which of the following will increase the percent of HF that is converted to the fluoride ion in water? (a) addition of NaOH (b) addition of HCl (c) addition of NaF