30.3 Europe: a.d. 1501 to 1600  (Page 2/29)

In spite of the advances in medical knowledge, general health in Europe was poor. Of every five children born, two died in infancy and one more died before maturity. The Royal College of Surgeons was established in England in 1505, stimulating medicine there.

By 1600 western physicians knew that scurvy could be prevented by green herbs or citrus fruits, but they were unable to convince the various admiralties. The potato, which was much smaller than that of today, was introduced to Europe through Spain from America about 1534, but it was not well accepted in some areas, some even thinking that the vegetable caused leprosy. After sugar cane had been taken from Africa to South America, the importation of colonial sugar from Brazil and the Caribbean became very significant in international trade. The Portuguese dumping of molasses at Antwerp soon doomed the honey-bee, because the price was so much lower than honey. (Ref. 122 , 211 ) But grain, flour, and bread were the food of Europe. Obtaining bread was the major preoccupation of all and whenever the price went up, violence was threatened. (Ref. 260 )

To understand the political intrigues of a very complicated Europe in this century one must realize that there were eight different, powerful factions present, which may be enumerated as follows:

• Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain
• The nobles of Germany
• The Protestants of Germany and later of France
• Francis I, King of France
• The nobles of France
• The Pope
• Henry VIII, King of England
• The Turks

There was almost constant warfare and strife throughout the continent, and these eight factions lined up in various ways at various times and on various sides, to battle each other. For example, Francis I remained Catholic, but at times helped Protestant nobles in Germany and Charles V at other times, but he also made alliances with the Turks against the emperor and with the Moors against Italy. The pope alternately warred against Charles V and then was on his side. Henry VIII backed the French part of the time and Charles and the Germans at other times. (Ref. 51 ) It is hoped that in the following paragraphs some of these complications may be partially unraveled.

Southern europe

The Mediterranean was no longer able to feed itself and it had to buy Baltic grain so that there was a resulting movement of Spanish silver (from America) to north Europe. The Mediterranean world was now always close to famine and this tended to dictate the course of world events, including the politics and wars. (Ref. 213 )

Eastern mediterranean islands

In this century the Turks ran the Venetians out of Cyprus but the latter held on to their other possessions. In 1522 Suleiman the Magnificent appeared off Rhodes with 700 warships containing an army of 200,000. Although the Knights Hospitallers, with about 500 knights and 6,000 soldiers, held out for 6 months, they finally had to withdraw. A few years later the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V gave the Knights the islands of Malta and Gozo for their headquarters and they henceforth were known as the "Knights of Malta". Suleiman attacked them also on Malta in 1565 with 373 warships and 40,000 men. Terrible warfare continued for nearly 5 months and about 2/3 of the attackers were killed and only about 600 of the 9,000 defenders were left alive and unwounded, but they held. Turkish sea-power was crippled by this defeat. The Knights regrouped, started work on a new capital city and a great hospital. (Ref. 38 , 86 )