# 12.7 Difference equations  (Page 2/2)

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## Finding difference equation

Below is a basic example showing the opposite of the steps above: given a transfer function one can easily calculate thesystems difference equation.

$H(z)=\frac{(z+1)^{2}}{(z-\frac{1}{2})(z+\frac{3}{4})}$
Given this transfer function of a time-domain filter, we want to find the difference equation. To begin with, expand bothpolynomials and divide them by the highest order $z$ .
$H(z)=\frac{(z+1)(z+1)}{(z-\frac{1}{2})(z+\frac{3}{4})}=\frac{z^{2}+2z+1}{z^{2}+2z+1-\frac{3}{8}}=\frac{1+2z^{-1}+z^{-2}}{1+\frac{1}{4}z^{-1}-\frac{3}{8}z^{-2}}$
From this transfer function, the coefficients of the two polynomials will be our ${a}_{k}()$ and ${b}_{k}()$ values found in the general difference equation formula, [link] . Using these coefficients and the above form of the transferfunction, we can easily write the difference equation:
$x(n)+2x(n-1)+x(n-2)=y(n)+\frac{1}{4}y(n-1)-\frac{3}{8}y(n-2)$
In our final step, we can rewrite the difference equation in its more common form showing the recursive nature of the system.
$y(n)=x(n)+2x(n-1)+x(n-2)+\frac{-1}{4}y(n-1)+\frac{3}{8}y(n-2)$

## Solving a lccde

In order for a linear constant-coefficient difference equation to be useful in analyzing a LTI system, we must be able tofind the systems output based upon a known input, $x(n)$ , and a set of initial conditions. Two common methods exist for solving a LCCDE: the direct method and the indirect method , the later being based on the z-transform. Below we will briefly discussthe formulas for solving a LCCDE using each of these methods.

## Direct method

The final solution to the output based on the direct method is the sum of two parts, expressed in the followingequation:

$y(n)={y}_{h}(n)+{y}_{p}(n)$
The first part, ${y}_{h}(n)$ , is referred to as the homogeneous solution and the second part, ${y}_{h}(n)$ , is referred to as particular solution . The following method is very similar to that used to solve many differential equations, so if youhave taken a differential calculus course or used differential equations before then this should seem veryfamiliar.

## Homogeneous solution

We begin by assuming that the input is zero, $x(n)=0$ .Now we simply need to solve the homogeneous difference equation:

$\sum_{k=0}^{N} {a}_{k}()y(n-k)=0$
In order to solve this, we will make the assumption that the solution is in the form of an exponential. We willuse lambda, $\lambda$ , to represent our exponential terms. We now have to solve thefollowing equation:
$\sum_{k=0}^{N} {a}_{k}()\lambda ^{(n-k)}=0$
We can expand this equation out and factor out all of thelambda terms. This will give us a large polynomial in parenthesis, which is referred to as the characteristic polynomial . The roots of this polynomial will be the key to solving the homogeneousequation. If there are all distinct roots, then the general solution to the equation will be as follows:
${y}_{h}(n)={C}_{1}(){\lambda }_{1}()^{n}+{C}_{2}(){\lambda }_{2}()^{n}+\dots +{C}_{N}(){\lambda }_{N}()^{n}$
However, if the characteristic equation contains multiple roots then the above general solution will be slightlydifferent. Below we have the modified version for an equation where ${\lambda }_{1}$ has $K$ multiple roots:
${y}_{h}(n)={C}_{1}(){\lambda }_{1}()^{n}+{C}_{1}()n{\lambda }_{1}()^{n}+{C}_{1}()n^{2}{\lambda }_{1}()^{n}+\dots +{C}_{1}()n^{(K-1)}{\lambda }_{1}()^{n}+{C}_{2}(){\lambda }_{2}()^{n}+\dots +{C}_{N}(){\lambda }_{N}()^{n}$

## Particular solution

The particular solution, ${y}_{p}(n)$ , will be any solution that will solve the general difference equation:

$\sum_{k=0}^{N} {a}_{k}(){y}_{p}(n-k)=\sum_{k=0}^{M} {b}_{k}()x(n-k)$
In order to solve, our guess for the solution to ${y}_{p}(n)$ will take on the form of the input, $x(n)$ . After guessing at a solution to the above equation involving the particular solution, one onlyneeds to plug the solution into the difference equation and solve it out.

## Indirect method

The indirect method utilizes the relationship between the difference equation and z-transform, discussed earlier , to find a solution. The basic idea is to convert the differenceequation into a z-transform, as described above , to get the resulting output, $Y(z)$ . Then by inverse transforming this and using partial-fractionexpansion, we can arrive at the solution.

$Z\left\{y,\left(n+1\right),-,y,\left(n\right)\right\}=zY\left(z\right)-y\left(0\right)$

This can be interatively extended to an arbitrary order derivative as in Equation [link] .

$Z\left\{-,\sum _{m=0}^{N-1},y,\left(n-m\right)\right\}={z}^{n}Y\left(z\right)-\sum _{m=0}^{N-1}{z}^{n-m-1}{y}^{\left(m\right)}\left(0\right)$

Now, the Laplace transform of each side of the differential equation can be taken

$Z\left\{\sum _{k=0}^{N},{a}_{k},\left[y,\left(n-m+1\right),-,\sum _{m=0}^{N-1},y,\left(n-m\right),y,\left(n\right)\right],=,Z,\left\{x,\left(,n,\right)\right\}\right\}$

which by linearity results in

$\sum _{k=0}^{N}{a}_{k}Z\left\{y,\left(n-m+1\right),-,\sum _{m=0}^{N-1},y,\left(n-m\right),y,\left(n\right)\right\}=Z\left\{x,\left(,n,\right)\right\}$

and by differentiation properties in

$\sum _{k=0}^{N}{a}_{k}\left({z}^{k},Z,\left\{y,\left(,n,\right)\right\},-,\sum _{m=0}^{N-1},{z}^{k-m-1},{y}^{\left(m\right)},\left(0\right)\right)=Z\left\{x,\left(,n,\right)\right\}.$

Rearranging terms to isolate the Laplace transform of the output,

$Z\left\{y,\left(,n,\right)\right\}=\frac{Z\left\{x,\left(,n,\right)\right\}+{\sum }_{k=0}^{N}{\sum }_{m=0}^{k-1}{a}_{k}{z}^{k-m-1}{y}^{\left(m\right)}\left(0\right)}{{\sum }_{k=0}^{N}{a}_{k}{z}^{k}}.$

Thus, it is found that

$Y\left(z\right)=\frac{X\left(z\right)+{\sum }_{k=0}^{N}{\sum }_{m=0}^{k-1}{a}_{k}{z}^{k-m-1}{y}^{\left(m\right)}\left(0\right)}{{\sum }_{k=0}^{N}{a}_{k}{z}^{k}}.$

In order to find the output, it only remains to find the Laplace transform $X\left(z\right)$ of the input, substitute the initial conditions, and compute the inverse Z-transform of the result. Partial fraction expansions are often required for this last step. This may sound daunting while looking at [link] , but it is often easy in practice, especially for low order difference equations. [link] can also be used to determine the transfer function and frequency response.

As an example, consider the difference equation

$y\left[n-2\right]+4y\left[n-1\right]+3y\left[n\right]=cos\left(n\right)$

with the initial conditions ${y}^{\text{'}}\left(0\right)=1$ and $y\left(0\right)=0$ Using the method described above, the Z transform of the solution $y\left[n\right]$ is given by

$Y\left[z\right]=\frac{z}{\left[{z}^{2}+1\right]\left[z+1\right]\left[z+3\right]}+\frac{1}{\left[z+1\right]\left[z+3\right]}.$

Performing a partial fraction decomposition, this also equals

$Y\left[z\right]=.25\frac{1}{z+1}-.35\frac{1}{z+3}+.1\frac{z}{{z}^{2}+1}+.2\frac{1}{{z}^{2}+1}.$

Computing the inverse Laplace transform,

$y\left(n\right)=\left(.25{z}^{-n}-.35{z}^{-3n}+.1cos\left(n\right)+.2sin\left(n\right)\right)u\left(n\right).$

One can check that this satisfies that this satisfies both the differential equation and the initial conditions.

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