# 0.10 Pulse shaping and receive filtering  (Page 4/13)

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## Eye diagrams

While the differences between the pulse shapedsequences in [link] and [link] are apparent, it is difficult to see directly whether the distortions are serious; that is, whether they causeerrors in the reconstructed data (i.e., the hard decisions) at the receiver.After all, if the reconstructed message is the same as the real message, then no harm has been done, even if thevalues of the received analog waveform are not identical. This section uses a visualization tool called eye diagrams that show how much smearing there is in the system, and whether symbol errors will occur.Eye diagrams were encountered briefly in Chapter [link] (refer back to [link] ) when visualizing how the performance of the idealized system degradedwhen various impairments were added.

Imagine an oscilloscope that traces out the received signal, with the special feature thatit is set to retrigger or restart the trace every $nT$ seconds without erasing the screen. Thus the horizontal axis of an eye diagram isthe time over which $n$ symbols arrive, and the vertical axis is the value of the receivedwaveform. In the ideal case, the trace begins with $n$ pulses, each of which is a scaled copy of $p\left(t\right)$ . Then the $n+1$ st to $2n$ th pulses arrive, and overlay the first $n$ , though each is scaled according to its symbol value. When there is noise,channel distortion, and timing jitter, the overlays will differ.

As the number of superimposed traces increases, the eye diagram becomes denser, and gives a picture ofhow the pulse shape, channel, and other factors combine to determine the reliability of the recovered message.Consider the $n=2$ symbol eye diagram shown in [link] . In this figure, the message is taken from the 4-PAMalphabet $±1$ $±3$ , and the Hamming pulse shape is used. The center of the “eye”gives the best times to sample, since the openings (i.e., the difference between the received pulse shape when the data value is $-1$ and the received pulse shape when the data value is 1, or between the received pulse shape when the data value is1 and the received pulse shape when the data value is 3) are the largest. The width marked “sensitivity to timing error”shows the range of time over which the samples quantize correctly. The noise margin is the smallest vertical distance between thebands, and is proportional to the amount of additive noise that can be resistedby the system without reporting erroneous values.

Thus, eye diagrams such as [link] give a clear picture of how good (or how bad) a pulse shape may be.Sometimes the smearing in this figure is so great that the open segment in the center disappears. The eye is said tobe closed , and this indicates that a simple quantizer (slicer) decision device will make mistakes in recovering thedata stream. This is not good!

For example, reconsider the 4-PAM example of the previous section that used a triple-wide Hamming pulse shape.The eye diagram is shown in [link] . No noise was added when drawing this picture. In the toptwo plots there are clear regions about the symbol locations where the eye is open.Samples taken in these regions will be quantized correctly, though there are also regions where mistakeswill occur. The other plots show the closed eye diagrams using $3T$ -wide and $5T$ -wide Hamming pulse shapes. Symbol errors will inevitably occur, even if all else in the system is ideal.All of the measures (noise margin, sensitivity to timing, and the distortion at zero crossings) become progressivelyworse, and ever smaller amounts of noise can cause decision errors.

Is there any normative that regulates the use of silver nanoparticles?
what king of growth are you checking .?
Renato
What fields keep nano created devices from performing or assimulating ? Magnetic fields ? Are do they assimilate ?
why we need to study biomolecules, molecular biology in nanotechnology?
?
Kyle
yes I'm doing my masters in nanotechnology, we are being studying all these domains as well..
why?
what school?
Kyle
biomolecules are e building blocks of every organics and inorganic materials.
Joe
anyone know any internet site where one can find nanotechnology papers?
research.net
kanaga
sciencedirect big data base
Ernesto
Introduction about quantum dots in nanotechnology
what does nano mean?
nano basically means 10^(-9). nanometer is a unit to measure length.
Bharti
do you think it's worthwhile in the long term to study the effects and possibilities of nanotechnology on viral treatment?
absolutely yes
Daniel
how to know photocatalytic properties of tio2 nanoparticles...what to do now
it is a goid question and i want to know the answer as well
Maciej
Abigail
for teaching engĺish at school how nano technology help us
Anassong
Do somebody tell me a best nano engineering book for beginners?
there is no specific books for beginners but there is book called principle of nanotechnology
NANO
what is fullerene does it is used to make bukky balls
are you nano engineer ?
s.
fullerene is a bucky ball aka Carbon 60 molecule. It was name by the architect Fuller. He design the geodesic dome. it resembles a soccer ball.
Tarell
what is the actual application of fullerenes nowadays?
Damian
That is a great question Damian. best way to answer that question is to Google it. there are hundreds of applications for buck minister fullerenes, from medical to aerospace. you can also find plenty of research papers that will give you great detail on the potential applications of fullerenes.
Tarell
what is the Synthesis, properties,and applications of carbon nano chemistry
Mostly, they use nano carbon for electronics and for materials to be strengthened.
Virgil
is Bucky paper clear?
CYNTHIA
carbon nanotubes has various application in fuel cells membrane, current research on cancer drug,and in electronics MEMS and NEMS etc
NANO
so some one know about replacing silicon atom with phosphorous in semiconductors device?
Yeah, it is a pain to say the least. You basically have to heat the substarte up to around 1000 degrees celcius then pass phosphene gas over top of it, which is explosive and toxic by the way, under very low pressure.
Harper
Do you know which machine is used to that process?
s.
how to fabricate graphene ink ?
for screen printed electrodes ?
SUYASH
What is lattice structure?
of graphene you mean?
Ebrahim
or in general
Ebrahim
in general
s.
Graphene has a hexagonal structure
tahir
On having this app for quite a bit time, Haven't realised there's a chat room in it.
Cied
what is biological synthesis of nanoparticles
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