# 21.2 Electromotive force: terminal voltage  (Page 7/12)

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Individual solar cells are connected electrically in modules to meet electrical-energy needs. They can be wired together in series or in parallel—connected like the batteries discussed earlier. A solar-cell array or module usually consists of between 36 and 72 cells, with a power output of 50 W to 140 W.

The output of the solar cells is direct current. For most uses in a home, AC is required, so a device called an inverter must be used to convert the DC to AC. Any extra output can then be passed on to the outside electrical grid for sale to the utility.

## Take-home experiment: virtual solar cells

One can assemble a “virtual” solar cell array by using playing cards, or business or index cards, to represent a solar cell. Combinations of these cards in series and/or parallel can model the required array output. Assume each card has an output of 0.5 V and a current (under bright light) of 2 A. Using your cards, how would you arrange them to produce an output of 6 A at 3 V (18 W)?

Suppose you were told that you needed only 18 W (but no required voltage). Would you need more cards to make this arrangement?

## Section summary

• All voltage sources have two fundamental parts—a source of electrical energy that has a characteristic electromotive force (emf), and an internal resistance $r$ .
• The emf is the potential difference of a source when no current is flowing.
• The numerical value of the emf depends on the source of potential difference.
• The internal resistance $r$ of a voltage source affects the output voltage when a current flows.
• The voltage output of a device is called its terminal voltage $V$ and is given by $V=\text{emf}-\text{Ir}$ , where $I$ is the electric current and is positive when flowing away from the positive terminal of the voltage source.
• When multiple voltage sources are in series, their internal resistances add and their emfs add algebraically.
• Solar cells can be wired in series or parallel to provide increased voltage or current, respectively.

## Conceptual questions

Is every emf a potential difference? Is every potential difference an emf? Explain.

Explain which battery is doing the charging and which is being charged in [link] .

Given a battery, an assortment of resistors, and a variety of voltage and current measuring devices, describe how you would determine the internal resistance of the battery.

Two different 12-V automobile batteries on a store shelf are rated at 600 and 850 “cold cranking amps.” Which has the smallest internal resistance?

What are the advantages and disadvantages of connecting batteries in series? In parallel?

Semitractor trucks use four large 12-V batteries. The starter system requires 24 V, while normal operation of the truck’s other electrical components utilizes 12 V. How could the four batteries be connected to produce 24 V? To produce 12 V? Why is 24 V better than 12 V for starting the truck’s engine (a very heavy load)?

## Problem exercises

Standard automobile batteries have six lead-acid cells in series, creating a total emf of 12.0 V. What is the emf of an individual lead-acid cell?

2.00 V

Explain why magnetic damping might not be effective on an object made of several thin conducting layers separated by insulation? can someone please explain this i need it for my final exam
Hi
saeid
hi
Yimam
What is thê principle behind movement of thê taps control
what is atomic mass
this is the mass of an atom of an element in ratio with the mass of carbon-atom
Chukwuka
show me how to get the accuracies of the values of the resistors for the two circuits i.e for series and parallel sides
Explain why it is difficult to have an ideal machine in real life situations.
tell me
Promise
what's the s . i unit for couple?
Promise
its s.i unit is Nm
Covenant
Force×perpendicular distance N×m=Nm
Oluwakayode
İt iş diffucult to have idêal machine because of FRİCTİON definitely reduce thê efficiency
Oluwakayode
if the classica theory of specific heat is valid,what would be the thermal energy of one kmol of copper at the debye temperature (for copper is 340k)
can i get all formulas of physics
yes
haider
what affects fluid
pressure
Oluwakayode
Dimension for force MLT-2
what is the dimensions of Force?
how do you calculate the 5% uncertainty of 4cm?
4cm/100×5= 0.2cm
haider
how do you calculate the 5% absolute uncertainty of a 200g mass?
= 200g±(5%)10g
haider
use the 10g as the uncertainty?
melia
haider
topic of question?
haider
the relationship between the applied force and the deflection
melia
sorry wrong question i meant the 5% uncertainty of 4cm?
melia
its 0.2 cm or 2mm
haider
thank you
melia
Hello group...
Chioma
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haider
well hello there
sean
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Noks
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Chibueze
10g
Olokuntoye
0.2m
Olokuntoye
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thomas
the meaning of phrase in physics
is the meaning of phrase in physics
Chovwe
write an expression for a plane progressive wave moving from left to right along x axis and having amplitude 0.02m, frequency of 650Hz and speed if 680ms-¹
how does a model differ from a theory
To use the vocabulary of model theory and meta-logic, a theory is a set of sentences which can be derived from a formal model using some rule of inference (usually just modus ponens). So, for example, Number Theory is the set of sentences true about numbers. But the model is a structure together wit
Jesilda
with an iterpretation.
Jesilda