The achievement gap between white and non-white students: a conceptual  (Page 10/19)

Parenting roles and social capital were important variables when determining academic success of Whites and non-Whites. Pong, Hao, and Gardner (2005) determined that Hispanic students who were economically disadvantaged, had parents who were less educated or had lower grade point averages than students who were from high socio-economic status. Davis-Kean and Sexton (2009) documented statistically significant differences among parent’s educational attainment, ethnicity, and their children’s academic achievement. They concluded that student success was related to their home environment, which is strongly connected to parental educational accomplishments.

Factors that also contribute to students’ success and educational opportunities are the national increases of single family households (Loyd, Tienda,&Zajacova, 2001). Poverty and changes in socioeconomic status generally affect minorities (e.g., Blacks, Latinos, and Native Americans) who are more than likely to be single-parent mothers (Kaiser&Delaney, 1996; Levin, 1995; Seccomb, 2000). These single parents have very little savings or pension and live paycheck to paycheck (Miller et al., 1967). They generally live in subsidized housing and spend a large percentage of their income on paying their rent (Kaiser&Delaney, 1996; Miller et al., 1967). Furthermore, these neighborhoods are generally crime ridden and are unsafe for children (Kaiser&Delaney, 1996). As a result, little or no income is available for insurance to cover unexpected plights that may occur (Miller et al., 1967). Consequently, mothers do not have the resources to accomplish their education, which would increase their income and the possibility for better living conditions (Kaiser&Delaney, 1996; Miller et al., 1967). With poverty comes limited access to transportation, which in effect makes it difficult for families to arrive at doctor’s appointments, school-parent conferences, and sometimes school (Miller et al., 1967). Finally, poverty can increase the chances for poor nutrition, illnesses, and depression to both parents and children, which can inadvertently create roadblocks in the children’s academic success (Kaiser&Delaney, 1996; Seccomb, 2000).

Achievement gap and teachers

Researchers have documented that highly qualified teachers contribute to closing the achievement gap between Whites and members of minority groups (Boyd, Loeb, Wyckoff, Lankford,&Rockoff, 2008; Flores, 2007; Haycock, 1998). Boyd et al. (2008) argued that teachers who are highly qualified make an impact on the achievement gap for minority students and students who come from poverty stricken environments. Well-prepared educators are essential to the success of all students; otherwise the NCLB Act would not have mandated that states employ highly qualified teachers in every classroom by the beginning of the 2005-2006 academic school year (No Child Left Behind, 2002). According to the NCLB Act, highly qualified teachers are individuals who have a bachelor’s degree, fully certified by the state in which they preside, and show competency in the subject that is being taught (No Child Left Behind, 2002). Akiba, LeTendre, and Scribner (2007) commented that among 46 countries around the world, the United States had some of the highest qualified teachers in relation to certifications and standards. Yet, they also concluded that the students who came from higher socio-economic status had greater access to these qualified teachers, compared to lower SES students (Akiba et al., 2007; Borman&Kimball, 2005).