Chemistry

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0.2 About openstax’s resources

0.3 About Chemistry

0.4 Atom-first alternate sequencing

0.5 Ancillaries

0.6 About our team

1 The periodic table

2 Essential mathematics

2.1 Exponential arithmetic

2.2 Addition of exponentials

2.3 Subtraction of exponentials

2.4 Multiplication of exponentials

2.5 Division of exponentials

2.6 Squaring of exponentials

2.7 Cubing of exponentials

2.8 Taking square roots of exponentials

2.9 Significant figures

2.10 The use of logarithms and exponential numbers

2.11 The solution of quadratic equations

2.12 Two-dimensional ( x - y ) graphing

3 Units and conversion factors

4 Fundamental physical constants

5 Water properties

6 Composition of commercial acids and bases

7 Standard thermodynamic properties for selected substances

8 Ionization constants of weak acids

9 Ionization constants of weak bases

10 Solubility products

11 Formation constants for complex ions

12 Standard electrode (half-cell) potentials

13 Half-lives for several radioactive isotopes

Essential ideas

1 Chemistry in context

1.1 Chemistry: the central science

1.2 The scientific method

1.3 The domains of chemistry

1.4 Key concepts and summary

1.5 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2 Phases and classification of matter

2.1 Atoms and molecules

2.2 Classifying matter

2.3 Key concepts and summary

2.4 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3 Physical and chemical properties

3.1 Key concepts and summary

3.2 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

4.1 Si base units

4.4 Temperature

4.6 Derived si units

4.9 Key concepts and summary

4.10 Key equations

4.11 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

5 Measurement uncertainty, accuracy, and precision

5.1 Significant figures in measurement

5.2 Significant figures in calculations

5.3 Accuracy and precision

5.4 Key concepts and summary

5.5 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

6 Mathematical treatment of measurement results

6.1 Conversion factors and dimensional analysis

6.2 Conversion of temperature units

6.3 Key concepts and summary

6.4 Key equations

6.5 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

Atoms, molecules, and ions

1 Early ideas in atomic theory

2 Evolution of atomic theory

3 Atomic structure and symbolism

3.1 Chemical symbols

3.3 Atomic mass

3.4 Key concepts and summary

3.5 Key equations

3.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

4 Chemical formulas

5 The periodic table

6 Molecular and ionic compounds

6.1 Ionic compounds

6.2 Molecular compounds

6.3 Key concepts and summary

6.4 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

7 Chemical nomenclature

7.1 Ionic compounds

7.2 Compounds containing only monatomic ions

7.3 Compounds containing polyatomic ions

7.4 Compounds containing a metal ion with a variable charge

7.5 Molecular (covalent) compounds

7.6 Compounds composed of two elements

7.7 Binary acids

7.9 Key concepts and summary

7.10 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

Composition of substances and solutions

1 Formula mass and the mole concept

1.1 Formula mass

1.2 Formula mass for covalent substances

1.3 Formula mass for ionic compounds

1.5 Key concepts and summary

1.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2 Determining empirical and molecular formulas

2.1 Percent composition

2.2 Determining percent composition from formula mass

2.3 Determination of empirical formulas

2.4 Deriving empirical formulas from percent composition

2.5 Derivation of molecular formulas

2.6 Key concepts and summary

2.7 Key equations

3.2 Dilution of solutions

3.3 Key concepts and summary

3.4 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3.5 Key equations

4 Other units for solution concentrations

4.1 Mass percentage

4.2 Volume percentage

4.3 Mass-volume percentage

4.4 Parts per million and parts per billion

4.5 Section summary

4.6 Key equations

Stoichiometry of chemical reactions

1 Writing and balancing chemical equations

1.1 Balancing equations

1.2 Additional information in chemical equations

1.3 Equations for ionic reactions

1.4 Key concepts and summary

1.5 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2 Classifying chemical reactions

2.1 Precipitation reactions and solubility rules

2.2 Acid-base reactions

2.3 Oxidation-reduction reactions

2.4 Balancing redox reactions via the half-reaction method

2.5 Key concepts and summary

2.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3 Reaction stoichiometry

3.1 Key concepts and summary

3.2 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

4 Reaction yields

4.1 Limiting reactant

4.2 Percent yield

4.3 Key concepts and summary

4.4 Key equations

4.5 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

5 Quantitative chemical analysis

5.2 Gravimetric analysis

5.3 Key concepts and summary

5.4 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

Thermochemistry

1 Energy basics

1.2 Thermal energy, temperature, and heat

1.3 Key concepts and summary

1.4 Key equations

1.5 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2.1 Key concepts and summary

2.2 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3.1 Enthalpy of combustion

3.2 Standard enthalpy of formation

3.3 Hess’s law

3.4 Key concepts and summary

3.5 Key equations

3.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

Electronic structure and periodic properties of elements

1 Electromagnetic energy

1.2 Blackbody radiation and the ultraviolet catastrophe

1.3 The photoelectric effect

1.4 Line spectra

1.5 Key concepts and summary

1.6 Key equations

1.7 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2 The bohr model

2.1 Key concepts and summary

2.2 Key equations

2.3 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3 Development of quantum theory

3.1 Behavior in the microscopic world

3.2 The quantum–mechanical model of an atom

3.3 Understanding quantum theory of electrons in atoms

3.4 The pauli exclusion principle

3.5 Key concepts and summary

3.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

4 Electronic structure of atoms (electron configurations)

4.1 Orbital energies and atomic structure

4.2 The aufbau principle

4.3 Electron configurations and the periodic table

4.4 Electron configurations of ions

4.5 Key concepts and summary

4.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

5 Periodic variations in element properties

5.1 Variation in covalent radius

5.2 Variation in ionic radii

5.3 Variation in ionization energies

5.4 Variation in electron affinities

5.5 Key concepts and summary

5.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

Chemical bonding and molecular geometry

1 Ionic bonding

2 Covalent bonding

2.1 Formation of covalent bonds

2.2 Pure vs. polar covalent bonds

2.3 Electronegativity

2.4 Electronegativity versus electron affinity

2.5 Electronegativity and bond type

2.6 Key concepts and summary

2.7 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3 Lewis symbols and structures

3.1 Lewis symbols

3.2 Lewis structures

3.3 The octet rule

3.4 Double and triple bonds

3.5 Writing lewis structures with the octet rule

3.6 Exceptions to the octet rule

3.7 Odd-electron molecules

3.8 Electron-deficient molecules

3.9 Hypervalent molecules

3.10 Key concepts and summary

3.11 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

4 Formal charges and resonance

4.1 Calculating formal charge

4.2 Using formal charge to predict molecular structure

4.4 Key concepts and summary

4.5 Key equations

4.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

5 Strengths of ionic and covalent bonds

5.1 Bond strength: covalent bonds

5.2 Ionic bond strength and lattice energy

5.3 The born-haber cycle

5.4 Key concepts and summary

5.5 Key equations

5.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

6 Molecular structure and polarity

6.1 Vsepr theory

6.2 Electron-pair geometry versus molecular structure

6.3 Predicting electron pair geometry and molecular structure

6.4 Molecular structure for multicenter molecules

6.5 Molecular polarity and dipole moment

6.6 Properties of polar molecules

6.7 Key concepts and summary

6.8 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

Advanced theories of covalent bonding

1 Valence bond theory

1.1 Key concepts and summary

1.2 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2 Hybrid atomic orbitals

2.1 sp Hybridization

2.2 sp 2 Hybridization

2.3 sp 3 Hybridization

2.4 sp 3 d And sp 3 d 2 Hybridization

2.5 Assignment of hybrid orbitals to central atoms

2.6 Key concepts and summary

2.7 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3 Multiple bonds

4 Molecular orbital theory

4.1 Molecular orbital energy diagrams

4.3 Bonding in diatomic molecules

4.4 The diatomic molecules of the second period

4.5 Key concepts and summary

4.6 Key equations

4.7 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

1.1 Key concepts and summary

1.2 Key equations

1.3 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2 Relating pressure, volume, amount, and temperature: the ideal gas law

2.1 Pressure and temperature: amontons’s law

2.2 Volume and temperature: charles’s law

2.3 Volume and pressure: boyle’s law

2.4 Moles of gas and volume: avogadro’s law

2.5 The ideal gas law

2.6 Standard conditions of temperature and pressure

2.7 Key concepts and summary

2.8 Key equations

2.9 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3 Stoichiometry of gaseous substances, mixtures, and reactions

3.1 Density of a gas

3.2 Molar mass of a gas

3.3 The pressure of a mixture of gases: dalton’s law

3.4 Collection of gases over water

3.5 Chemical stoichiometry and gases

3.6 Avogadro’s law revisited

3.7 Key concepts and summary

3.8 Key equations

3.9 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

4 Effusion and diffusion of gases

5 The kinetic-molecular theory

5.1 The kinetic-molecular theory explains the behavior of gases, part i

5.2 Molecular velocities and kinetic energy

5.3 The kinetic-molecular theory explains the behavior of gases, part ii

5.4 Key concepts and summary

5.5 Key equations

5.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

6 Non-ideal gas behavior

6.1 Key concepts and summary

6.2 Key equations

6.3 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

Liquids and solids

1 Intermolecular forces

1.1 Forces between molecules

1.2 Dispersion forces

1.3 Dipole-dipole attractions

1.4 Hydrogen bonding

1.5 Key concepts and summary

1.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2 Properties of liquids

2.1 Key concepts and summary

2.2 Key equations

2.3 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3 Phase transitions

3.1 Vaporization and condensation

3.2 Boiling points

3.3 Enthalpy of vaporization

3.4 Melting and freezing

3.5 Sublimation and deposition

3.6 Heating and cooling curves

3.7 Key concepts and summary

3.8 Key equations

3.9 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

4 Phase diagrams

4.1 Supercritical fluids

4.2 Key concepts and summary

4.3 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

5 The solid state of matter

5.1 Ionic solids

5.2 Metallic solids

5.3 Covalent network solid

5.4 Molecular solid

5.5 Properties of solids

5.6 Crystal defects

5.7 Key concepts and summary

5.8 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

6 Lattice structures in crystalline solids

6.1 The structures of metals

6.2 Unit cells of metals

6.3 The structures of ionic crystals

6.4 Unit cells of ionic compounds

6.5 Calculation of ionic radii

6.6 X-ray crystallography

6.7 Key concepts and summary

6.8 Key equations

6.9 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

Solutions and colloids

1 The dissolution process

1.1 The formation of solutions

1.2 Key concepts and summary

1.3 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2.1 Ionic electrolytes

2.2 Covalent electrolytes

2.3 Key concepts and summary

2.4 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3.1 Solutions of gases in liquids

3.2 Solutions of liquids in liquids

3.3 Solutions of solids in liquids

3.4 Key concepts and summary

3.5 Key equations

3.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

4 Colligative properties

4.1 Mole fraction and molality

4.2 Vapor pressure lowering

4.3 Elevation of the boiling point of a solvent

4.4 Distillation of solutions

4.5 Depression of the freezing point of a solvent

4.6 Phase diagram for an aqueous solution of a nonelectrolyte

4.7 Osmosis and osmotic pressure of solutions

4.8 Determination of molar masses

4.9 Colligative properties of electrolytes

4.10 Key concepts and summary

4.11 Key equations

4.12 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

5.1 Preparation of colloidal systems

5.2 Soaps and detergents

5.3 Electrical properties of colloidal particles

5.5 Key concepts and summary

5.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

1 Chemical reaction rates

1.1 Relative rates of reaction

1.2 Key concepts and summary

1.3 Key equations

1.4 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2 Factors affecting reaction rates

2.1 The chemical nature of the reacting substances

2.2 The state of subdivision of the reactants

2.3 Temperature of the reactants

2.4 Concentrations of the reactants

2.5 The presence of a catalyst

2.6 Key concepts and summary

2.7 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3.1 Reaction order and rate constant units

3.2 Key concepts and summary

3.3 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

4 Integrated rate laws

4.1 First-order reactions

4.2 Second-order reactions

4.3 Zero-order reactions

4.4 The half-life of a reaction

4.5 First-order reactions

4.6 Second-order reactions

4.7 Zero-order reactions

4.8 Key concepts and summary

4.9 Key equations

4.10 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

5 Collision theory

5.1 Activation energy and the arrhenius equation

5.2 Key concepts and summary

5.3 Key equations

5.4 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

6 Reaction mechanisms

6.1 Unimolecular elementary reactions

6.2 Bimolecular elementary reactions

6.3 Termolecular elementary reactions

6.4 Relating reaction mechanisms to rate laws

6.5 Key concepts and summary

6.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

7.1 Homogeneous catalysts

7.2 Heterogeneous catalysts

7.3 Key concepts and summary

7.4 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

Fundamental equilibrium concepts

1 Chemical equilibria

1.1 Key concepts and summary

1.2 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2 Equilibrium constants

2.1 Homogeneous equilibria

2.2 Heterogeneous equilibria

2.3 Key concepts and summary

2.4 Key equations

2.5 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3 Shifting equilibria: le châtelier’s principle

3.1 Predicting the direction of a reversible reaction

3.2 Effect of change in concentration on equilibrium

3.3 Effect of change in pressure on equilibrium

3.4 Effect of change in temperature on equilibrium

3.5 Catalysts do not affect equilibrium

3.6 Key concepts and summary

3.7 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

4 Equilibrium calculations

Acid-base equilibria

1 Brønsted-lowry acids and bases

1.1 Amphiprotic species

1.2 Key concepts and summary

1.3 Key equations

1.4 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2.1 Key concepts and summary

2.2 Key equations

2.3 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3 Relative strengths of acids and bases

3.1 The ionization of weak acids and weak bases

3.2 The relative strengths of strong acids and bases

3.3 Effect of molecular structure on acid-base strength

3.4 Key concepts and summary

3.5 Key equations

3.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

4 Hydrolysis of salt solutions

4.1 Acid-base neutralization

4.2 Salts of weak bases and strong acids

4.3 Salts of weak acids and strong bases

4.4 Equilibrium in a solution of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base

4.5 The ionization of hydrated metal ions

4.6 Key concepts and summary

4.7 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

5 Polyprotic acids

5.1 Key concepts and summary

5.2 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

6.1 How buffers work

6.2 Buffer capacity

6.3 Selection of suitable buffer mixtures

6.4 The henderson-hasselbalch equation

6.5 Key concepts and summary

6.6 Key equations

7 Acid-base titrations

7.1 Titration curve

7.2 Acid-base indicators

7.3 Key concepts and summary

Equilibria of other reaction classes

1 Precipitation and dissolution

1.1 The solubility product constant

1.2 K sp And solubility

1.3 Predicting precipitation

1.4 Common ion effect

1.5 Key concepts and summary

1.6 Key equations

1.7 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2 Lewis acids and bases

2.1 Key concepts and summary

2.2 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3 Multiple equilibria

1.1 Spontaneous and nonspontaneous processes

1.2 Dispersal of matter and energy

1.3 Key concepts and summary

1.4 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2.1 Entropy and microstates

2.2 Predicting the sign of δ S

2.3 Key concepts and summary

2.4 Key equations

2.5 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3 The second and third laws of thermodynamics

3.1 The second law of thermodynamics

3.2 The third law of thermodynamics

3.3 Key concepts and summary

3.4 Key equations

3.5 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

4.1 Calculating free energy change

4.2 Temperature dependence of spontaneity

4.3 Free energy and equilibrium

4.4 Key concepts and summary

4.5 Key equations

4.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

Electrochemistry

1 Balancing oxidation-reduction reactions

1.1 Key concepts and summary

1.2 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2 Galvanic cells

2.1 Key concepts and summary

2.2 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3 Standard reduction potentials

4 The nernst equation

4.1 Key concepts and summary

4.2 Key equations

4.3 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

5 Batteries and fuel cells

5.1 Primary batteries

5.2 Secondary batteries

5.4 Key concepts and summary

5.5 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

6.1 Key concepts and summary

6.2 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

7.1 The electrolysis of molten sodium chloride

7.2 The electrolysis of water

7.3 The electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride

7.4 Quantitative aspects of electrolysis

7.5 Key concepts and summary

7.6 Key equations

7.7 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

Representative metals, metalloids, and nonmetals

1.1 Group 1: the alkali metals

1.2 Group 2: the alkaline earth metals

1.7 Key concepts and summary

1.8 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2 Occurrence and preparation of the representative metals

2.1 Electrolysis

2.2 The preparation of sodium

2.3 The preparation of aluminum

2.4 The preparation of magnesium

2.5 Chemical reduction

2.6 The preparation of magnesium

2.7 The preparation of zinc

2.8 The preparation of tin

2.9 Key concepts and summary

2.10 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3 Structure and general properties of the metalloids

3.1 Structures of the metalloids

3.2 Occurrence, preparation, and compounds of boron and silicon

3.3 Boron and silicon halides

3.4 Boron and silicon oxides and derivatives

3.5 Key concepts and summary

3.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

4 Structure and general properties of the nonmetals

4.1 Structures of the nonmetals

4.5 Key concepts and summary

4.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

5 Occurrence, preparation, and compounds of hydrogen

5.1 Preparation of hydrogen

5.2 From steam and carbon or hydrocarbons

5.3 Electrolysis

5.4 Reaction of metals with acids

5.5 Reaction of ionic metal hydrides with water

5.7 Reactions with elements

5.8 Reaction with compounds

5.9 Hydrogen compounds

5.10 Nitrogen hydrogen compounds

5.11 Phosphorus hydrogen compounds

5.12 Sulfur hydrogen compounds

5.13 Halogen hydrogen compounds

5.14 Key concepts and summary

5.15 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

6 Occurrence, preparation, and properties of carbonates

6.1 Key concepts and summary

6.2 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

7 Occurrence, preparation, and properties of nitrogen

7.1 Key concepts and summary

7.2 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

8 Occurrence, preparation, and properties of phosphorus

8.1 Phosphorus oxygen compounds

8.2 Phosphorus halogen compounds

8.3 Key concepts and summary

8.4 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

9 Occurrence, preparation, and compounds of oxygen

9.2 Reaction with elements

9.3 Reaction with compounds

9.4 Oxides, peroxides, and hydroxides

9.6 Peroxides and superoxides

9.8 Nonmetal oxygen compounds

9.9 Sulfur oxygen compounds

9.10 Halogen oxygen compounds

9.11 Nonmetal oxyacids and their salts

9.12 Nitrogen oxyacids and salts

9.13 Phosphorus oxyacids and salts

9.14 Sulfur oxyacids and salts

9.15 Halogen oxyacids and their salts

9.16 Key concepts and summary

9.17 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

10 Occurrence, preparation, and properties of sulfur

11 Occurrence, preparation, and properties of halogens

11.1 Occurrence and preparation

11.2 Properties of the halogens

11.3 Halides of the representative metals

11.4 Interhalogens

11.5 Applications

11.6 Key concepts and summary

11.7 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

12 Occurrence, preparation, and properties of the noble gases

Transition metals and coordination chemistry

1 Occurrence, preparation, and properties of transition metals and their

1.1 Properties of the transition elements

1.2 Preparation of the transition elements

1.3 Isolation of iron

1.4 Isolation of copper

1.5 Isolation of silver

1.6 Transition metal compounds

1.10 Carbonates

1.11 Other salts

1.12 Key concepts and summary

1.13 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2 Coordination chemistry of transition metals

2.1 The naming of complexes

2.2 The structures of complexes

2.3 Isomerism in complexes

2.4 Coordination complexes in nature and technology

2.5 Key concepts and summary

2.6 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3 Spectroscopic and magnetic properties of coordination compounds

3.1 Crystal field theory

3.2 Magnetic moments of molecules and ions

3.3 Colors of transition metal complexes

3.4 Key concepts and summary

3.5 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

Organic chemistry

1.2 The basics of organic nomenclature: naming alkanes

1.4 Isomers of alkenes

1.6 Aromatic hydrocarbons

1.7 Key concepts and summary

1.8 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

2 Alcohols and ethers

2.2 Naming alcohols

2.4 Key concepts and summary

2.5 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3 Aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters

3.1 Aldehydes and ketones

3.2 Carboxylic acids and esters

3.3 Key concepts and summary

3.4 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

4 Amines and amides

4.1 Key concepts and summary

4.2 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

Nuclear chemistry

1 Nuclear structure and stability

2 Nuclear equations

2.1 Types of particles in nuclear reactions

2.2 Balancing nuclear reactions

2.3 Key concepts and summary

2.4 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

3 Radioactive decay

3.1 Types of radioactive decay

3.2 Radioactive decay series

3.3 Radioactive half-lives

3.4 Radiometric dating

3.5 Radioactive dating using carbon-14

3.6 Radioactive dating using nuclides other than carbon-14

3.7 Key concepts and summary

3.8 Key equations

3.9 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

4 Transmutation and nuclear energy

4.1 Synthesis of nuclides

4.2 Nuclear fission

4.3 Fission reactors

4.4 Nuclear fuels

4.5 Nuclear moderators

4.6 Reactor coolants

4.7 Control rods

4.8 Shield and containment system

4.9 Nuclear fusion and fusion reactors

4.10 Key concepts and summary

4.11 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

5 Uses of radioisotopes

5.1 Key concepts and summary

5.2 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

6 Biological effects of radiation

6.1 Ionizing and nonionizing radiation

6.2 Biological effects of exposure to radiation

6.3 Measuring radiation exposure

6.4 Units of radiation measurement

6.5 Effects of long-term radiation exposure on the human body

6.6 Key concepts and summary

6.7 Key equations

6.8 Chemistry end of chapter exercises

Source: OpenStax, Chemistry. OpenStax CNX. May 20, 2015 Download for free at http://legacy.cnx.org/content/col11760/1.9

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