Astronomy

OpenStax

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0.1 About openstax

0.2 About openstax resources

0.3 Customization

0.6 About Astronomy

0.7 Coverage and scope

0.8 Currency and accuracy

0.9 Flexibility

0.10 Student-centered focus

0.11 Interactive online resources

0.12 Feature boxes that help students think outside the box

0.13 End-of-chapter materials to extend students’ learning

0.14 Beautiful art program

0.15 Additional resources

0.16 Student and instructor resources

0.17 Partner resources

0.18 About the authors

0.19 Senior contributing authors

0.20 Contributing authors

1 How to study for an introductory astronomy class

2 Astronomy websites, images, and apps

3 Scientific notation

4 Units used in science

5 Some useful constants for astronomy

6 Physical and orbital data for the planets

7 Selected moons of the planets

8 Future total eclipses

9 The nearest stars, brown dwarfs, and white dwarfs

10 The brightest twenty stars

11 The chemical elements

12 The constellations

13 Star chart and sky event resources

Science and the universe: a brief tour

1 The nature of astronomy

2 The nature of science

3 The laws of nature

4 Numbers in astronomy

5 Consequences of light travel time

6 A tour of the universe

7 The universe on the large scale

8 The universe of the very small

9 A conclusion and a beginning

Observing the sky: the birth of astronomy

1 The sky above

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 The celestial sphere

1.3 Celestial poles and celestial equator

1.4 Rising and setting of the sun

1.5 Fixed and wandering stars

1.6 Constellations

2 Ancient astronomy

3 Astrology and astronomy

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 The beginnings of astrology

3.3 The horoscope

3.4 Astrology today

4 The birth of modern astronomy

4.1 Learning objectives

4.3 The heliocentric model

4.4 Galileo and the beginning of modern science

4.5 Galileo’s astronomical observations

4.6 For further exploration

4.8 Ancient Astronomy

4.9 Astronomy and Astrology

4.10 Copernicus and Galileo

4.12 Ancient Astronomy

4.13 Astronomy and Astrology

4.14 Copernicus and Galileo

4.16 Astronomy and Astrology

4.17 Copernicus and Galileo

4.18 Collaborative group activities

4.19 Thought questions

4.20 Figuring for yourself

Orbits and gravity

1 The laws of planetary motion

2 Newton’s great synthesis

3 Newton’s universal law of gravitation

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Orbital motion and mass

3.3 Key concepts and summary

4 Orbits in the solar system

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Orbits of the planets

4.3 Orbits of asteroids and comets

4.4 Key concepts and summary

5 Motions of satellites and spacecraft

6 Gravity with more than two bodies

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 The interactions of many bodies

6.3 The discovery of neptune

6.4 Key concepts and summary

6.5 For further exploration

6.7 Brahe and Kepler

6.9 The Discovery of Neptune

6.11 Brahe and Kepler

6.13 The Discovery of Neptune

6.15 Brahe and Kepler

6.17 The Discovery of Neptune

6.18 Collaborative group activities

6.19 Thought questions

6.20 Figuring for yourself

Earth, moon, and sky

1 Earth and sky

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Locating places on earth

1.3 Locating places in the sky

1.4 The turning earth

1.5 Key concepts and summary

5 Phases and motions of the moon

6 Ocean tides and the moon

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 The pull of the moon on earth

6.3 The formation of tides

6.4 Key concepts and summary

7 Eclipses of the sun and moon

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Eclipses of the sun

7.3 Appearance of a total eclipse

7.4 Eclipses of the moon

7.5 Key concepts and summary

7.6 For further exploration

7.10 Collaborative group activities

7.11 Thought questions

7.12 Figuring for yourself

Radiation and spectra

1 The behavior of light

2 The electromagnetic spectrum

3 Spectroscopy in astronomy

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Properties of light

3.3 The value of stellar spectra

3.4 Types of spectra

3.5 Key concepts and summary

4 The structure of the atom

5 Formation of spectral lines

6 The doppler effect

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Motion affects waves

6.3 Color shifts

6.4 Key concepts and summary

6.5 For further exploration

6.9 Introductions to quantum mechanics

6.10 Collaborative group activities

6.11 Thought questions

6.12 Figuring for yourself

Astronomical instruments

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Systems for measuring radiation

1.3 How telescopes work

1.4 Formation of an image by a lens or a mirror

2 Telescopes today

3 Visible-light detectors and instruments

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Photographic and electronic detectors

3.3 Infrared observations

3.4 Spectroscopy

4 Radio telescopes

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Detection of radio energy from space

4.3 Radio interferometry

4.4 Radar astronomy

5 Observations outside earth’s atmosphere

6 The future of large telescopes

Other worlds: an introduction to the solar system

1 Overview of our planetary system

2 Composition and structure of planets

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 The giant planets

2.3 The terrestrial planets

2.4 Moons, asteroids, and comets

2.5 Temperatures: going to extremes

2.6 Geological activity

2.7 Key concepts and summary

3 Dating planetary surfaces

4 Origin of the solar system

Earth as a planet

1 The global perspective

2 Earth’s crust

3 Earth’s atmosphere

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Structure of the atmosphere

3.3 Atmospheric composition and origin

3.4 Weather and climate

3.5 Key concepts and summary

4 Life, chemical evolution, and climate change

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 The origin of life

4.3 The evolution of the atmosphere

4.4 The greenhouse effect and global warming

4.5 Human impacts on our planet

4.6 Key concepts and summary

5 Cosmic influences on the evolution of earth

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Where are the craters on earth?

5.3 Recent impacts

5.4 Mass extinction

5.5 Impacts and the evolution of life

5.6 Impacts in our future?

5.7 Key concepts and summary

5.8 For further exploration

5.18 Collaborative group activities

5.19 Thought questions

5.20 Figuring for yourself

Cratered worlds

1 General properties of the moon

2 The lunar surface

3 Impact craters

4 The origin of the moon

Earthlike planets: venus and mars

1 The nearest planets: an overview

2 The geology of venus

3 The massive atmosphere of venus

4 The geology of mars

5 Water and life on mars

6 Divergent planetary evolution

The giant planets

1 Exploring the outer planets

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Exploration of the outer solar system so far

1.3 Enter the orbiters: galileo and cassini

1.4 Key concepts and summary

2 The giant planets

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Basic characteristics

2.3 Appearance and rotation

2.4 Composition and structure

2.5 Internal heat sources

2.6 Magnetic fields

2.7 Key concepts and summary

3 Atmospheres of the giant planets

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Atmospheric composition

3.3 Clouds and atmospheric structure

3.4 Winds and weather

3.5 Giant storms on giant planets

3.6 Key concepts and summary

3.7 For further exploration

3.11 Uranus and Neptune

3.19 Collaborative group activities

3.20 Thought questions

3.21 Figuring for yourself

Rings, moons, and pluto

1 Ring and moon systems introduced

2 The galilean moons of jupiter

3 Titan and triton

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Titan, a moon with atmosphere and hydrocarbon lakes

3.3 Triton and its volcanoes

3.4 Key concepts and summary

4 Pluto and charon

5 Planetary rings

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 What causes rings?

5.3 Rings of saturn

5.4 Rings of uranus and neptune

5.5 Interactions between rings and moons

5.6 Key concepts and summary

5.7 For further exploration

5.15 Collaborative group activities

5.16 Thought questions

5.17 Figuring for yourself

Comets and asteroids: debris of the solar system

2 Asteroids and planetary defense

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Earth-approaching asteroids

2.3 Key concepts and summary

3 The “long-haired” comets

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Appearance of comets

3.3 Comet orbits

3.4 The comet’s nucleus

3.5 The comet’s atmosphere

3.6 The rosetta comet mission

3.7 Key concepts and summary

4 The origin and fate of comets and related objects

4.1 Learning objectives

4.3 The kuiper belt and the oort cloud

4.4 Early evolution of the planetary system

4.5 The fate of comets

4.6 Key concepts and summary

4.7 For further exploration

4.17 Collaborative group activities

4.18 Thought questions

4.19 Figuring for yourself

Cosmic samples and the origin of the solar system

2 Meteorites: stones from heaven

3 Formation of the solar system

4 Comparison with other planetary systems

5 Planetary evolution

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Geological activity

5.3 Elevation differences

5.4 Atmospheres

5.5 Key concepts and summary

5.6 For further exploration

5.8 Meteors and Meteorites

5.9 Evolution of the Solar System and Protoplanetary Disks

5.11 Meteors and Meteorites

5.12 Evolution of the Solar System and Protoplanetary Disks

5.14 Meteors and Meteorites

5.15 Evolution of the Solar System and Protoplanetary Disks

5.16 Collaborative group activities

5.17 Thought questions

5.18 Figuring for yourself

The sun: a garden-variety star

1 The structure and composition of the sun

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Composition of the sun’s atmosphere

1.3 The layers of the sun beneath the visible surface

1.4 The solar photosphere

1.5 The chromosphere

1.6 The transition region

1.8 The solar wind

1.9 Key concepts and summary

2 The solar cycle

3 Solar activity above the photosphere

4 Space weather

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Some history

4.3 Sources of space weather

4.4 Solar storm damage on earth

4.5 Earth’s climate and the sunspot cycle: is there a connection?

4.6 Key concepts and summary

4.7 For further exploration

4.12 Collaborative group activities

4.13 Thought questions

4.14 Figuring for yourself

The sun: a nuclear powerhouse

1 Sources of sunshine: thermal and gravitational energy

2 Mass, energy, and the theory of relativity

3 The solar interior: theory

4 The solar interior: observations

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Solar pulsations

4.3 Solar neutrinos

4.4 Key concepts and summary

4.5 For further exploration

4.9 Collaborative group activities

4.10 Thought questions

4.11 Figuring for yourself

Analyzing starlight

1 The brightness of stars

1.1 Learning objectives

1.3 Apparent brightness

1.4 The magnitude scale

1.5 Other units of brightness

1.6 Key concepts and summary

2 Colors of stars

3 The spectra of stars (and brown dwarfs)

4 Using spectra to measure stellar radius, composition, and motion

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Clues to the size of a star

4.3 Abundances of the elements

4.4 Radial velocity

4.5 Proper motion

4.7 Key concepts and summary

4.8 For further exploration

4.12 Collaborative group activities

4.13 Thought questions

4.14 Figuring for yourself

The stars: a celestial census

1 A stellar census

2 Measuring stellar masses

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Binary stars

2.3 Masses from the orbits of binary stars

2.4 The range of stellar masses

2.5 The mass-luminosity relation

2.6 Key concepts and summary

3 Diameters of stars

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Stars blocked by the moon

3.3 Eclipsing binary stars

3.4 Diameters of eclipsing binary stars

3.5 Using the radiation law to get the diameter

3.6 Stellar diameters

3.7 Key concepts and summary

4 The h–r diagram

Celestial distances

1 Fundamental units of distance

2 Surveying the stars

3 Variable stars: one key to cosmic distances

4 The h–r diagram and cosmic distances

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Distances from spectral types

4.3 A few words about the real world

4.4 Key concepts and summary

4.5 For further exploration

4.9 Collaborative group activities

4.10 Thought questions

4.11 Figuring for yourself

Between the stars: gas and dust in space

1 The interstellar medium

2 Interstellar gas

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 The nature of cosmic rays

4.3 Where do they come from?

4.4 Key concepts and summary

5 The life cycle of cosmic material

6 Interstellar matter around the sun

The birth of stars and the discovery of planets outside the solar system

1 Star formation

2 The h–r diagram and the study of stellar evolution

3 Evidence that planets form around other stars

4 Planets beyond the solar system: search and discovery

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Searching for orbital motion

4.3 Transiting planets

4.4 Direct detection

4.5 Key concepts and summary

5 Exoplanets everywhere: what we are learning

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Kepler results

5.3 Planets with known densities

5.4 Exoplanetary systems

5.5 Key concepts and summary

6 New perspectives on planet formation

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 How to make a hot jupiter

6.3 Forming planetary systems

6.4 Habitable exoplanets

6.5 Key concepts and summary

6.6 For further exploration

6.8 Star Formation

6.13 Collaborative group activities

6.14 Thought questions

6.15 Figuring for yourself

Stars from adolescence to old age

1 Evolution from the main sequence to red giants

2 Star clusters

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Globular clusters

2.3 Open clusters

2.4 Stellar associations

2.5 Key concepts and summary

3 Checking out the theory

4 Further evolution of stars

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Helium fusion

4.3 Becoming a giant again

4.4 Mass loss from red-giant stars and the formation of planetary nebulae

4.5 Cosmic recycling

4.6 Key concepts and summary

5 The evolution of more massive stars

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Making new elements in massive stars

5.3 Elements in globular clusters and open clusters are not the same

5.4 Approaching death

5.5 Key concepts and summary

5.6 For further exploration

5.10 Collaborative group activities

5.11 Thought questions

5.12 Figuring for yourself

The death of stars

1 The death of low-mass stars

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 A star in crisis

1.3 Degenerate stars

1.4 White dwarfs

1.5 The ultimate fate of white dwarfs

1.6 Evidence that stars can shed a lot of mass as they evolve

1.7 Key concepts and summary

2 Evolution of massive stars: an explosive finish

3 Supernova observations

4 Pulsars and the discovery of neutron stars

5 The evolution of binary star systems

6 The mystery of the gamma-ray bursts

Black holes and curved spacetime

1 Introducing general relativity

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 The principle of equivalence

1.3 Gravity or acceleration?

1.4 The paths of light and matter

1.5 Key concepts and summary

2 Spacetime and gravity

3 Tests of general relativity

4 Time in general relativity

6 Evidence for black holes

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Requirements for a black hole

6.3 The discovery of stellar-mass black holes

6.4 Feeding a black hole

6.5 Key concepts and summary

7 Gravitational wave astronomy

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Proof from a pulsar

7.3 Direct observations

7.4 Key concepts and summary

7.5 For further exploration

7.7 Black Holes

7.8 Gravitational Waves

7.10 Black Holes

7.11 Gravitational Waves

7.13 Black Holes

7.14 Gravitational Waves

7.15 Collaborative group activities

7.16 Thought questions

7.17 Figuring for yourself

The milky way galaxy

1 The architecture of the galaxy

2 Spiral structure

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 The arms of the milky way

2.3 Formation of spiral structure

2.4 Key concepts and summary

3 The mass of the galaxy

4 The center of the galaxy

5 Stellar populations in the galaxy

6 The formation of the galaxy

1 The discovery of galaxies

2 Types of galaxies

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Spiral galaxies

2.3 Elliptical galaxies

2.4 Irregular galaxies

2.5 Galaxy evolution

2.6 Key concepts and summary

3 Properties of galaxies

4 The extragalactic distance scale

5 The expanding universe

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Slipher’s pioneering observations

5.3 Hubble’s law

5.4 Hubble’s law and distances

5.5 Variation of hubble’s constant

5.6 Models for an expanding universe

5.7 Key concepts and summary

5.8 For further exploration

5.12 Collaborative group activities

5.13 Thought questions

5.14 Figuring for yourself

Active galaxies, quasars, and supermassive black holes

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Redshifts: the key to quasars

1.3 Quasars obey the hubble law

1.4 The size of the energy source

1.5 Earlier evidence

1.6 Key concepts and summary

2 Supermassive black holes: what quasars really are

3 Quasars as probes of evolution in the universe

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 The evolution of quasars

3.3 Codependence of black holes and galaxies

3.4 How a galaxy can influence a black hole in its center

3.5 How does the black hole influence the formation of stars in the galaxy

3.6 The birth of black holes and galaxies

3.7 Key concepts and summary

3.8 For further exploration

3.12 Collaborative group activities

3.13 Thought questions

3.14 Figuring for yourself

The evolution and distribution of galaxies

1 Observations of distant galaxies

2 Galaxy mergers and active galactic nuclei

3 The distribution of galaxies in space

4 The challenge of dark matter

5 The formation and evolution of galaxies and structure in the universe

1 The age of the universe

2 A model of the universe

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 The expanding universe

2.3 Models of the expansion

2.4 The cosmic tug of war

2.5 Ages of distant galaxies

2.6 Key concepts and summary

3 The beginning of the universe

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 The history of the idea

3.3 The first few minutes

3.4 The evolution of the early universe

3.5 Atomic nuclei form

3.6 Learning from deuterium

3.7 Key concepts and summary

4 The cosmic microwave background

5 What is the universe really made of?

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 What is dark matter?

5.3 Dark matter and the formation of galaxies

5.4 The universe in a nutshell

5.5 Key concepts and summary

6 The inflationary universe

7 The anthropic principle

Life in the universe

1 The cosmic context for life

3 Searching for life beyond earth

4 The search for extraterrestrial intelligence

Source: OpenStax, Astronomy. OpenStax CNX. Apr 12, 2017 Download for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11992/1.13

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