The oral cavity is a secondary opening for the respiratory tract. The oral and nasal cavities connect through the fauces to the pharynx, or throat. The pharynx can be divided into three regions: the nasopharynx, the oropharynx , and the laryngopharynx . Air inhaled through the mouth does not pass through the nasopharynx; it proceeds first through the oropharynx and then through the laryngopharynx. The palatine tonsils , which consist of lymphoid tissue, are located within the oropharynx. The laryngopharynx, the last portion of the pharynx, connects to the larynx , which contains the vocal fold ( [link] ).
- Identify the sequence of anatomical structures through which microbes would pass on their way from the nares to the larynx.
- What two anatomical points do the eustachian tubes connect?
Anatomy of the lower respiratory system
The lower respiratory system begins below the epiglottis in the larynx or voice box ( [link] ). The trachea , or windpipe, is a cartilaginous tube extending from the larynx that provides an unobstructed path for air to reach the lungs. The trachea bifurcates into the left and right bronchi as it reaches the lungs. These paths branch repeatedly to form smaller and more extensive networks of tubes, the bronchiole s. The terminal bronchioles formed in this tree-like network end in cul-de-sacs called the alveoli . These structures are surrounded by capillary networks and are the site of gas exchange in the respiratory system. Human lungs contain on the order of 400,000,000 alveoli. The outer surface of the lungs is protected with a double-layered pleural membrane. This structure protects the lungs and provides lubrication to permit the lungs to move easily during respiration.
Defenses of the respiratory system
The inner lining of the respiratory system consists of mucous membrane s ( [link] ) and is protected by multiple immune defenses. The goblet cell s within the respiratory epithelium secrete a layer of sticky mucus. The viscosity and acidity of this secretion inhibits microbial attachment to the underlying cells. In addition, the respiratory tract contains ciliated epithelial cells. The beating cilia dislodge and propel the mucus, and any trapped microbes, upward to the epiglottis, where they will be swallowed. Elimination of microbes in this manner is referred to as the mucociliary escalator effect and is an important mechanism that prevents inhaled microorganisms from migrating further into the lower respiratory tract.
The upper respiratory system is under constant surveillance by mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) , including the adenoids and tonsils. Other mucosal defenses include secreted antibodies (IgA), lysozyme, surfactant, and antimicrobial peptides called defensins . Meanwhile, the lower respiratory tract is protected by alveolar macrophage s. These phagocytes efficiently kill any microbes that manage to evade the other defenses. The combined action of these factors renders the lower respiratory tract nearly devoid of colonized microbes.